A

abandonment, contemplation of:

pañinissaggànupassanà, is one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight; s. vipassanà, further ànàpànasati (16).

abbhokàsik’anga: ‘living in the open air’, is one of the

ascetic means to purification (dhutanga, q.v.).

aberration (in morality and understanding): s. vipatti.

abhabbàgamana: ‘incapable of progressing’. “Those

beings who are obstructed by their evil actions

(kamma, s. karma), by their defilements (kilesa, q.v.),

by the result of their evil actions (s. vipàka), or who are

devoid of faith, energy and knowledge, and unable to

enter the right path and reach perfection in wholesome

things, all those are said to be incapable of progressing”

(Pug. 13). According to Commentary the ‘evil actions’

denote the 5 heinous deeds with immediate result

(ànantarika-kamma, q.v.), whilst the ‘defilements’ refer

to the ‘evil views with fixed destiny’ (niyata-micchàdiññhi;

s. diññhi).

àbhassara: The ‘Radiant Ones’, are a class of heavenly

beings of the fine-material world (råpa-loka); cf. deva.

abhibhàyatana: the 8 ‘stages of mastery’, are powers

to be obtained by means of the kasina-exercises

– 14 –

(s. kasiõa). In the Com. to M. 77, where àyatana is

explained by ‘means’ (kàraõa) it is said: “The

abhibhàyatana through their counteracting may master

(suppress) the adverse states, and by means of higher

knowledge they may master the objects of mind.” They

are means for transcending the sensuous sphere.

The stereotype text often met with in the Suttas

(e.g. D. 11, 33; M. 77; A. VIII, 65; X, 29) is as follows:

(1) “Perceiving (blue…, red…, yellow…, white)

forms on one’s own body, one sees forms externally

small ones, beautiful or ugly; and in mastering these

one understands: ‘I know, I understand.’ This is the first

stage of mastery.

(2) “Perceiving forms on one’s own body, one sees

forms externally, large ones…. This is the second stage

of mastery.

(3) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, small ones…. This is the third

stage of mastery.

(4) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, large ones…. This is the fourth

stage of mastery.

(5) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, blue forms, forms of blue color,

blue appearance, blue lustre, and mastering these one

understands: ‘I know, I understand. This is the fifth

stage of mastery.”

(6-8) The same is repeated with yellow, red and

white forms.

– 15 –

As preparatory kasina-object for the 1st and 2nd

exercise one should choose on one’s own body a small

or a large spot, beautiful or ugly, and thereon one

should concentrate one’s full undivided attention, so

that this object after a while reappears as mental reflex

or image (nimitta, q.v.) and, as it were, as something

external. Such an exercise, though appearing quite

mechanical, if properly carried out will bring about a

high degree of mental concentration and entrance into

the 4 absorptions (jhàna, q.v.). In the 3rd and 4th

exercises the monk by an external kasina-object gains

the mental reflexes and absorptions. As objects of the

remaining exercises, perfectly clear and radiant colors

should be chosen, flowers, cloth, etc.

A kasina-object of small size is said to be suitable

for a mentally unsteady nature, one of a large size for a

dull nature, a beautiful object for an angry nature, an

ugly one for a lustful nature.

In Vis.M. V it is said: “By means of the earth-kasina

one succeeds in reaching the stage of mastery with

regard to small and large objects…. By means of the

blue-kasina one succeeds in causing blue forms to

appear, in producing darkness, in reaching the stage of

mastery with regard to beautiful and ugly colors, in

reaching ‘deliverance through the beautiful’, etc.”

(cf. vimokkha II, 3). The same is also said with regard to

the other color kasinas.

abhijjhà: ‘covetousness’ is a synonym of lobha

(s. måla) and taõhà (q.v.) and is the 8th link of the

unwholesome courses of action (s. kamma-patha, I).

abhinibbatti: a Sutta term for rebirth; s. punabbhava.

– 16 –

abhi¤¤à: The 6 ‘higher powers’, or supernormal

knowledge’s, consist of 5 mundane (lokiya, q.v.)

powers attainable through the utmost perfection in

mental concentration (samàdhi, q.v.) and one

supermundane (lokuttara, q.v.) power attainable

through penetrating insight (vipassanà, q.v.),

i.e. extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya; s. àùava), in

other words, realization of Arahatship or Holiness.

They are: (1) magical powers (iddhi-vidhà), (2) divine

ear (dibba-sota), (3) penetration of the minds of others

(ceto-pariya-¤àõa), (4) remembrance of former existences

(pubbe-nivàsànussati), (5) divine eye (dibbacakkhu),

(6) extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya).

The stereotype text met with in all the 4 Suttacollections

(e.g. D. 34; M. 4, 6, 77; A. III, 99; V, 23;

S. XV, 9 and Pug. 271, 239) is as follows:

(1) “Now, O Bhikkhus, the monk enjoys the various

magical powers (iddhi-vidhà), such as being one he becomes

manifold, and having become manifold he again

becomes one. He appears and disappears. Without being

obstructed he passes through walls and mountains,

just as if through the air. In the earth he dives and rises

up again, just as if in the water. He walks on water

without sinking, just as if on the earth. Cross-legged he

floats through the air, just like a winged bird. With his

hand he touches the sun and moon, these so mighty

ones, so powerful ones. Even up to the Brahma-world

he has mastery over his body.

(2) “With the divine ear (dibba-sota) he hears

sounds both heavenly and human, far and near.

(3) “He knows the minds of other beings (parassa

ceto-pariya-¤àõa), of other persons, by penetrating

– 17 –

them with his own mind. He knows the greedy mind as

greedy and the not-greedy one as not greedy; knows

the hating mind as hating and the not-hating one as not

hating; knows the deluded mind as deluded and the

not-deluded one as not deluded; knows the shrunken

mind and the distracted one, the developed mind and

the undeveloped one, the surpassable mind and the

unsurpassable one, the concentrated mind and the unconcentrated

one, the freed mind and the unfreed one.

(4) “He remembers manifold former existences

(pubbe-nivàsànussati), such as one birth, two, three,

four and five births… hundred thousand births;

remembers many formations and dissolutions of

worlds: ‘There I was, such name I had… and vanishing

from there I entered into existence somewhere else…

and vanishing from there I again reappeared here.’

Thus he remembers, always together with the marks

and peculiarities, many a former existence.

(5) “With the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu = yathàkammåpaga-¤

àõa or cutåpapàta-¤àõa), the pure one,

he sees beings vanishing and reappearing, low and

noble ones, beautiful and ugly ones, sees how beings

are reappearing according to their deeds (s. karma):

‘These beings, indeed, followed evil ways in bodily

actions, words and thoughts, insulted the noble ones,

held evil views, and according to their evil views they

acted. At the dissolution of their body, after death, they

have appeared in lower worlds, in painful states of

existence, in the world of suffering, in hell. Those other

beings, however, are endowed with good action… have

appeared in happy state of existence, in a heavenly

world.

– 18 –

(6) “Through the extinction of all cankers

(àsavakkhaya) even in this very life he enters into the

possession of deliverance of mind, deliverance through

wisdom, after having himself understood and realized it.’’

4-6 appear frequently under the name of the

‘threefold (higher) knowledge’ (te-vijjà, q.v.). They are,

however, not a necessary condition for the attainment

of sainthood (arahatta), i.e. of the sixth abhi¤¤à.

Vis.M. XI-XIII gives a detailed explanation of the

5 mundane higher powers, together with the method of

attaining them.

In connection with the 4 kinds of progress

(s. pañipadà), abhi¤¤à means the ‘comprehension’

achieved on attainment of the paths and fruitions.

abhisamàcàrika-sãla: ‘morality consisting in good

behavior’, relates to the external duties of a monk such

as towards his superior, etc. “abhisamàcàrika-sãla is a

name for those moral rules other than the 8 ending

with right livelihood (i.e. 4-fold right speech, 3-fold

right action and right livelihood, as in the Eightfold

Path) (Vis.M. I; s. sacca IV, 3-5). “Impossible is it,

O monks, that without having fulfilled the law of good

behavior, a monk could fulfill the law of genuine pure

conduct” (A.V, 21). Cf. àdibrahmacariyakasãla.

abhisamaya: ‘truth-realization’, is the full and direct

grasp of the Four Noble Truths by the Stream-winner

(Sotàpanna; s. ariya-puggala). In the Com. the term is

represented by ‘penetration’ (pañivedha, q.v.). Frequently

occurring as dhammàbhisamaya, ‘realization of the

– 19 –

doctrine’ Cf. S. XIII (Abhisamaya Saüyutta) and

Pts.M. (Abhisamaya Kathà).

abhisankhàra: identical with the 2nd link of the

pañicca-samuppàda (q.v.), sankhàra (q.v.; under I, 1) or

karma-formations.

ability to acquire insight: cf. ugghañita¤¤å,

vipacita¤¤å, neyya.

abodes: vihàra (q.v.). The 4 Divine a.: brahmavihàra

(q.v.). The 9 a. of beings: sattàvàsa (q.v.).

absence: natthi-paccaya, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

absorption: s. jhàna.

abstentions, the 3: virati (q.v.).

access, Moment of: s. javana.

access-concentration: s. samàdhi.

accumulation (of Karma): àyåhana (q.v.).

àciõõaka-kamma: habitual karma; s. karma.

acinteyya: lit. ‘That which cannot or should not be

thought, the unthinkable, incomprehensible, impenetrable,

that which transcends the limits of thinking and

over which therefore one should not ponder. These

4 unthinkables are: the sphere of a Buddha (buddhavisaya),

of the meditative absorptions (jhàna-visaya), of

karma-result (kamma-vipàka), and brooding over the

world (loka-cintà), especially over an absolute first

beginning of it (s. A. IV, 77).

– 20 –

“Therefore, O monks, do not brood over the world

as to whether it is eternal or temporal, limited or endless….

Such brooding, O monks, is senseless, has nothing

to do with genuine pure conduct (s. àdibrahmacariyaka-

sãla), does not lead to aversion, detachment,

extinction, nor to peace, to full comprehension,

enlightenment and Nibbàna, etc.” (S.LVI, 41).

acquired image (during concentration): s. nimitta,

samàdhi, kasiõa.

action: karma (q.v.) – Right bodily a.: sammàkammanta;

s. sacca (IV.4)

adaptability (of body, mental factors and

consciousness): kamma¤¤atà (q.v.); cf. khandha

(corporeality) and Tab. II.

adaptation-knowledge: anuloma-¤àõa (q.v.).

adherence: paràmàsa (q.v.)

adherent: upàsaka (q.v.)

adhicitta-sikkhà: ‘training in higher mentality’;

s. sikkhà.

adhimokkha: ‘determination’, decision, resolve: is one

of the mental concomitants (cetasika) and belongs to

the group of mental formations (sankhàra-kkhandha).

In M. 111, it is mentioned together with other mental

concomitants. See Tab. II, III.

adhipa¤¤à-dhamma-vipassanà: ‘insight into things

based on higher wisdom’, is one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight (s. vipassanà).

– 21 –

adhipati-paccaya: ‘predominance-condition’ is one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.); if developed, it is considered

as the fourfold road to power (iddhi-pàda. q.v.).

adhisãla-sikkhà: ‘training in higher morality’: s. sikkhà.

adhiññhàna, as a doctrinal term, occurs chiefly in two

meanings:

1. ‘Foundation’: four ‘foundations’ of an Arahat’s

mentality, mentioned and explained in M. 140: the

foundation of wisdom (pa¤¤à), of truthfulness (sacca)

of liberality (càga) and of peace (upasama). See also

D. 33 and Com.

2. ‘Determination’, resolution, in: adhiññhàna-iddhi,

‘magical power of determination’ (s. iddhi); adhiññhànapàramã,

‘perfection of resolution’ (s. pàramã).

àdibrahmacariyaka-sãla: ‘morality of genuine pure

conduct’, consists in right speech, right bodily action

and right livelihood, forming the 3rd, 4th and 5th links

of the Eightfold Path (s. sacca, IV.3, 4, 5); cf. Vis.M. I. In

A. II, 86 it is said:

“With regard to those moral states connected with

and corresponding to the genuine pure conduct, he is

morally strong, morally firm and trains himself in the

moral rules taken upon himself. After overcoming the

3 fetters (ego-belief. skeptic doubt and attachment to

mere rules and ritual; s. saüyojana) he becomes one

who will be ‘reborn seven times at the utmost’

(s. Sotàpanna) and after only seven times more wandering

through this round of rebirths amongst men and

heavenly beings, he will put an end to suffering.”

– 22 –

àdãnavànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in

contemplation of misery’, is one of the 8 kinds of insight

(vipassanà) that form the ‘purification of the knowledge

and vision of the path-progress (s. visuddhi, VI. 4). It is

further one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(s. vipassanà).

adosa: ‘hatelessness, is one of the 3 wholesome roots

(måla, q.v.).

adukkha-m-asukhà vedanà: ‘feeling which is neither

painful nor joyful’, i.e. indifferent feeling; s. khandha,

vedanà.

advertence (of mind to the object): àvajjana, is one of

the functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca, q.v.).

Cf. manasikàra.

æon: kappa (q.v.).

agati: the 4 ‘wrong paths’ are: the path of greed

(chanda), of hate, of delusion, of cowardice (bhaya).

“One who is freed from evil impulses is no longer liable

to take the wrong path of greed, etc.’’ (A. IV, 17; IX, 7).

age, Old: jarà (q.v.).

aggregates: khandha (q.v.).

agility: lahutà (q.v.).

àhàra: ‘nutriment’, ‘food’, is used in the concrete sense

as material food and as such it belongs to derived corporeality

(s. khandha, Summary I.). In the figurative

sense, as ‘foundation’ or condition, it is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) and is used to denote

– 23 –

4 kinds of nutriment, which are material and mental:

1. material food (kabalinkàràhàra), 2. (sensorial and

mental) impression (phassa), 3. mental volition (manosa¤

cetanà), 4. consciousness (vi¤¤àõa).

1. Material food feeds the eightfold corporeality

having nutrient essence as its 8th factor (i.e. the solid,

liquid, heat, motion, color, odour, the tastable and

nutrient essence; s. råpa-kalàpa). 2. Sensorial and

mental impression is a condition for the 3 kinds of

feeling (agreeable, disagreeable and indifferent);

s. pañiccasamuppàda (6). 3. Mental volition

(= karma, q.v.) feeds rebirth; s. pañiccasamuppàda (2).

4. Consciousness feeds mind and corporeality; (nàmaråpa;

ib., 2) at the moment of conception” (Vis.M. XI).

Literature (on the 4 Nutriments): M. 9 & Com. (tr. in

‘R. Und.’), M 38; S. XII, 11, 63, 64 – The Four Nutriments of

Life, Selected texts & Com. (Wheel 105/106).

àhàra-ja (or-samu¤¤hàna) – råpa: ‘Food-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

àhàre pañikkåla-sa¤¤à: ‘reflection on the loathsomeness

of food’, fully described in Vis.M. XI, l.

ahetuka-citta: s. hetu.

ahetuka-diññhi: ‘view of uncausedness’ (of existence);

s. diññhi.

ahetu-pañisandhika: s. pañisandhi.

ahiüsà: s. avihiüsà.

– 24 –

ahirika-anottappa: ‘lack of moral shame and dread’,

are two of the 4 unwholesome factors associated with

all karmically unwholesome states of consciousness,

the two others being restlessness (uddhacca) and delusion

(moha). Cf. Tab. II.

“There are two sinister things, namely, lack of moral

shame and dread, etc.” (A. II, 6). “Not to be ashamed

of what one should be ashamed of; not to be ashamed

of evil, unwholesome things: this is called lack of moral

shame” (Pug. 59). “Not to dread what one should

dread… this is called lack of moral dread (Pug. 60).

ahosi-kamma: ‘ineffective karma’; s. karma.

àjãva: ‘livelihood’. About right and wrong livelihood.,

s. sacca (IV. 5) and micchà-magga (5).

àjãva-pàrisuddhi-sãla: ‘morality consisting in purification

of livelihood’, is one of the 4 kinds of perfect

morality; s. sãla.

akaniññha: the ‘Great Ones’, i.e. ‘Highest Gods’, are the

inhabitants of the 5th and highest heaven of the Pure

Abodes (suddhàvàsa, q.v.); cf. avacara, deva (II)

Anàgàmã.

àkàsa: ‘space’, is, according to Com., of two kinds:

1. limited space (paricchinnàkàsa or paricchedàkàsa),

2. endless space (anantàkàsa), i.e. cosmic space.

1. Limited space, under the name of àkàsa-dhàtu

(space element), belongs to derived corporeality

(s. khandha, Summary I; Dhs. 638) and to a sixfold

classification of elements (s. dhàtu; M 112, 115, 140).

– 25 –

It is also an object of kasina (q.v.) meditation. It is

defined as follows: “The space element has the characteristic

of delimiting matter. Its function is to indicate

the boundaries of matter. It is manifested as the confines

of matter; or its manifestation consists in being

untouched (by the 4 great elements), and in holes and

apertures. Its proximate cause is the matter delimited. It

is on account of the space element that one can say of

material things delimited that ‘this is above. below,

around that’ “ (Vis.M. XIV, 63).

2. Endless space is called in Atthasàlini ajatàkàsa,

‘unentangled’, i.e. unobstructed or empty space. It is the

object of the first immaterial absorption (s. jhàna), the

sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana). According

to Abhidhamma philosophy, endless space has no

objective reality (being purely conceptual), which is

indicated by the fact that it is not included in the triad

of the wholesome (kusalatika), which comprises the

entire reality. Later Buddhist schools have regarded it

as one of several unconditioned or uncreated states

(asankhata dharma) – a view that is rejected in

Kath. (s. Guide. p. 70). Theravàda Buddhism recognizes

only Nibbàna as an unconditioned element (asankhatadhàtu:

s. Dhs. 1084).

àkàsa dhàtu: ‘space element’; see above and dhàtu.

àkàsa-kasiõa ‘space-kasina exercise’; s. kasiõa.

àkàsàna¤càyatana: ‘sphere of boundless space’, is

identical with the 1st absorption in the immaterial

sphere; s. jhàna (6).

àki¤ca¤¤a-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

– 26 –

àki¤ca¤¤àyatana: s. jhàna (7).

akiriya-diññhi: view of the inefficacy of action’;

s. diññhi.

akuppà-ceto-vimutti: cf. ceto-vimutti.

akuppa-dhamma: ‘unshakable’, is one who has

attained full mastery over the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.).

In Pug. 4 it is said:

‘What person is unshakable? If a person gains the

meditative attainments of the fine-material and immaterial

sphere (råpàvacara-aråpàvacara); and he gains

them at his wish, without toil and exertion; and according

to his wish, as regards place, object and duration,

enters them or arises from them, then it is impossible

that in such a person the attainments may become

shaken through negligence. This person is unshakable.”

akusala: ‘unwholesome’, are all those karmic volitions

(kamma-cetanà; s. cetanà) and the consciousness and

mental concomitants associated therewith, which are

accompanied either by greed (lobha) or hate (dosa) or

merely delusion (moha); and all these phenomena are

causes of unfavourable karma-results and contain the

seeds of unhappy destiny or rebirth. Cf. karma, pañiccasamuppàda

(1), Tab. II.

akusala-sàdhàrana-cetasika: ‘general unwholesome

mental factors associated with all unwholesome

actions’ (volitions), are four: (1) lack of moral shame

(ahirika), (2) lack of moral dread (anottappa),

(3) restlessness (uddhacca), (4) delusion (moha). For

– 27 –

(1) and (2) s. ahirika-anottappa, for (3) s. nãvaraõa, for

(4) måla. (App.).

The corresponding term in the field of wholesome

consciousness is sobhana-sàdhàrana-cetasika

(s. sobhana).

akusala-vitakka: ‘unwholesome thoughts’ as defined

under akusala (q.v.). In M. 20, five methods of overcoming

them are given: by changing the object, thinking

of the evil results, paying no attention, analyzing,

suppressing.

Tr. in The Removal of Distracting Thoughts (Wheel 21).

alcohol prohibition: s. suràmeraya-majjappamàdaññhànà

etc.

alms, vow of going for; or to do so without omitting

any house: s. dhutanga, 3, 4.

alms-bowl eater, the practice of the: s. dhutanga.

alms-giving: dàna (q.v.).

alms-goer, the practice of the; s. dhutanga.

alobha: ‘greedlessness’, is one of the 3 karmically

wholesome roots (måla, q.v.).

àloka-kasiõa: ‘light-kasina-exercise’; s. kasiõa.

àloka-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of light’. The recurring canonical

passage reads: “Here the monk contemplates the

perception of light. He fixes his-mind to the perception

of the day; as at day-time so at night, and as at night, so

in the day. In this way, with a mind clear and un-

28 –

clouded, he develops a stage of mind that is full of

brightness.” It is one of the methods of overcoming

drowsiness, recommended by the Buddha to Mahà-

Moggallàna (A. VII, 58). According to D. 33, it is

conducive to the development of ‘knowledge and

vision’ (s. visuddhi), and it is said to be helpful to the

attainment of the ‘divine eye’ (s. abhi¤¤à).

altruistic joy: mudità, is one of the 4 sublime abodes

(brahmavihàra, q.v.).

amata (Sanskrit amçta; √ mç to die; = Gr. ambrosia):

‘Deathlessness’ according to popular belief also the

gods’ drink conferring immortality, is a name for

Nibbàna (s. Nibbàna), the final liberation from the

wheel of rebirths, and therefore also from the everrepeated

deaths.

amoha: ‘non-delusion’, wisdom, is one of the

3 karmically wholesome roots (måla, q.v.).

anabhijjhà: ‘freedom from covetousness’,

unselfishness; s. kammapatha (II. 8).

anabhirati-sa¤¤à: s. sabba-loke anabhirati-s.

Anàgàmã: the ‘Non-Returner’, is a noble disciple

(ariya-puggala, q.v.) on the 3rd stage of holiness. There

are 5 classes of Non-Returners, as it is said

(e.g. Pug. 42-46):

“A being, through the disappearing of the 5 lower

fetters (saüyojana, q.v.), reappears in a higher world

(amongst the devas of the Pure Abodes, suddhàvàsa,

q.v.), and without returning from that world (into

the sensuous sphere) he there reaches Nibbàna.

– 29 –

(1) “He may, immediately after appearing there (in

the Pure Abodes) or without having gone beyond half

of the life-time, attain the holy path for the overcoming

of the higher fetters. Such a being is called ‘one who

reaches Nibbàna within the first half of the life’ (antaràparinibbàyã).

(2) “Or, whilst living beyond half of the lifetime, or

at the moment of death, he attains the holy path for the

overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is called

‘one who reaches Nibbàna after crossing half the lifetime’

(upahacca-parinibbàyã).

(3) “Or, with exertion he attains the holy path for

the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who reaches Nibbàna with exertion’

(sasankhàra-parinibbàyã).

(4) “Or, without exertion he attains the holy path

for the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who reaches Nibbàna without exertion’

(asankhàra-parinibbàyã).

(5) “Or, after vanishing from the heaven of the

Aviha-gods (s. suddhàvàsa), he appears in the heaven of

the unworried (atappa) gods. After vanishing from

there he appears in the heaven of the clearly-visible

(sudassa) gods, from there in the heaven of the clearvisioned

(sudassã) gods, from there in the heaven of the

highest (akaniññha) gods. There he attains the holy path

for the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who passes up-stream to the highest gods’

(uddhamsota-akaniññha-gàmã).”

analysis of the 4 elements: dhàtu-vavatthàna (q.v.).

analytical doctrine: vibhajja-vàda (q.v.).

– 30 –

analytical knowledge, the 4 kinds of:

pañisambhidà (q.v.).

ana¤¤àta¤-¤assàmãt’indriya: is one of the

3 supermundane senses or faculties; s. indriya (20).

anantara-paccaya: ‘proximity’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

ànantarika-kamma: the 5 heinous ‘actions with

immediate destiny’ are: parricide, matricide, killing an

Arahat (Saint), wounding a Buddha, creating schism in

the monks’ Order. In A.V., 129 it is said:

“There are 5 irascible and incurable men destined

to the lower world and to hell, namely: the parricide,”

etc. About the 5th see A. X., 35, 38. With regard

to the first crime, it is said in D. 2 that if King Ajàtasattu

had not deprived his father of life, he would have

reached entrance into the path of Stream-entry (App.).

ànantariya: the ‘Immediacy’, is a name for that

concentration of mind which is associated with such

insight (vipassanà, q.v.) as is present in any one of the

4 kinds of supermundane path consciousness (s. ariyapuggala),

and which therefore is the cause of the

immediately following consciousness as its result or

‘fruition’ (phala, q.v.). According to the Abhidhamma,

the path (of the Sotàpanna, etc.) is generated by the

insight into the impermanence, misery and impersonality

of existence, flashing up at that very moment and

transforming and ennobling one’s nature forever.

– 31 –

It is mentioned under the name of ànantarikasamàdhi

in the Ratana Sutta (Sn. v. 22) and in Pts.M. 1,

¥àõakathà.

ànàpàna-sati: ‘mindfulness on in-and-out-breathing’, is

one of the most important exercises for reaching mental

concentration and the 4 absorptions (jhàna, q.v.).

In the Satipaññhàna Sutta (M. 10, D. 22) and elsewhere,

4 methods of practice are given, which may also

serve as basis for insight meditation. The ‘Discourse on

Mindfulness of Breathing’ (ânàpànasati Sutta, M. 118)

and other texts have 16 methods of practice, which

divide into 4 groups of four. The first three apply to

both tranquillity (samatha, q.v.) and insight-meditation,

while the fourth refers to pure insight practice only.

The second and the third group require the attainment

of the absorptions.

“With attentive mind he breathes in, with attentive

mind he breathes out.

I. (1) “When making a long inhalation he knows:

‘I make a long inhalation’; when making a long

exhalation he knows: ‘I make a long exhalation.’

(2) “When making a short inhalation he knows:

‘I make a short inhalation’; when making a short

exhalation he knows: ‘I make a short exhalation.’

(3) “ ‘Clearly perceiving the entire (breath-) body

I will breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘clearly perceiving

the entire (breath-) body I will breathe out,’

thus he trains himself.

(4) “ ‘Calming this bodily function I will breathe in,’

thus he trains himself; ‘calming this bodily function

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

– 32 –

II. (5) “ ‘Feeling rapture (pãti) I will breathe in,’ thus

he trains himself; ‘feeling rapture I will breathe out,’

thus he trains himself.

(6) “ ‘Feeling joy I will breathe in,’ thus he trains

himself; ‘feeling joy I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.

(7) “ ‘Feeling the mental formation (citta-sankhàra)

I will breathe in,’ thus he trains himself, ‘feeling the

mental formation I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.

(8) “ ‘Calming the mental formation I will breathe

in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘calming the mental formation

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

III. (9) “ ‘Clearly perceiving the mind (citta) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘clearly perceiving

the mind I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(10) “ ‘Gladdening the mind I will breathe in,’ thus

he trains himself; ‘gladdening the mind I will breathe

out,’ thus he trains himself.

(11) “ ‘Concentrating the mind I will breathe in,

thus he trains himself; ‘concentrating the mind I will

breathe out’, thus he trains himself.

(12) “ ‘Freeing the mind I will breathe in,’ thus he

trains himself; ‘freeing the mind I will breathe out,’ thus

he trains himself.

IV. (13) “ ‘Reflecting on impermanence (anicca) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on impermanence

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(14) “ ‘Reflecting on detachment (viràga) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on detachment

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

– 33 –

(15) “ ‘Reflecting on extinction (nirodha) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on extinction

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(16) “ ‘Reflecting on abandonment (patinissagga)

I will breathe in, thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on

abandonment I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.”

In M. 118 it is further shown how these 16 exercises

bring about the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.), namely: 1-4 contemplation of the

body, 5-8 contemplation of feeling, 9-12 contemplation

of mind (consciousness), 13-16 contemplation of mindobjects.

Then it is shown how these 4 foundations of

mindfulness bring about the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.); then these again deliverance of mind

(ceto-vimutti, q.v.) and deliverance through wisdom

(pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.).

Literature: ânàpànasati Saüyutta (S. LIV). –

Pts.M. ânàpànakathà – Full explanation of practice in

Vis.M. VIII, 145ff. – For a comprehensive anthology of

canonical and commentarial texts, see Mindfulness of

Breathing, ¥àõamoli Thera (Kandy: BPS, 1964).

anattà: ‘not-self’, non-ego, egolessness, impersonality,

is the last of the three characteristics of existence

(ti-lakkhaõa, q.v.). The anattà doctrine teaches that

neither within the bodily and mental phenomena of

existence, nor outside of them, can be found anything

that in the ultimate sense could be regarded as a selfexisting

real ego-entity, soul or any other abiding

substance. This is the central doctrine of Buddhism,

without understanding which a real knowledge of

– 34 –

Buddhism is altogether impossible. It is the only really

specific Buddhist doctrine, with which the entire Structure

of the Buddhist teaching stands or falls. All the

remaining Buddhist doctrines may, more or less, be

found in other philosophic systems and religions, but

the anattà-doctrine has been clearly and unreservedly

taught only by the Buddha, wherefore the Buddha is

known as the anattà-vàdi, or ‘Teacher of Impersonality’.

Whosoever has not penetrated this impersonality of all

existence, and does not comprehend that in reality

there exists only this continually self-consuming process

of arising and passing bodily and mental phenomena,

and that there is no separate ego-entity within or

without this process, he will not be able to understand

Buddhism, i.e. the teaching of the 4 Noble Truths

(sacca, q.v.), in the right light. He will think that it is his

ego, his personality, that experiences suffering, his personality

that performs good and evil actions and will be

reborn according to these actions, his personality that

will enter into Nibbàna, his personality that walks on

the Eightfold Path. Thus it is said in Vis.M. XVI:

“Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found;

The deeds are, but no doer of the deeds is there;

Nibbàna is, but not the man that enters it;

The path is, but no traveller on it is seen.”

“Whosoever is not clear with regard to the conditionally

arisen phenomena, and does not comprehend

that all the actions are conditioned through ignorance,

etc., he thinks that it is an ego that understands or does

not understand, that acts or causes to act, that comes to

existence at rebirth… that has the sense-impression,

– 35 –

that feels, desires, becomes attached, continues and at

rebirth again enters a new existence” (Vis.M. XVII, 117).

While in the case of the first two characteristics it is

stated that all formations (sabbe sankhàrà) are impermanent

and subject to suffering, the corresponding text

for the third characteristic states that “all things are notself”

(sabbe dhammà anattà; M. 35, Dhp. 279). This is

for emphasizing that the false view of an abiding self or

substance is neither applicable to any ‘formation’ or

conditioned phenomenon, nor to Nibbàna, the Unconditioned

Element (asankhatà dhàtu).

The Anattà-lakkhana Sutta, the ‘Discourse on the

Characteristic of Not-self’, was the second discourse

after Enlightenment, preached by the Buddha to his

first five disciples, who after hearing it attained to

perfect Holiness (arahatta).

The contemplation of not-self (anattànupassanà)

leads to the emptiness liberation (su¤¤atà-vimokkha,

s. vimokkha). Herein the faculty of wisdom

(pa¤¤indriya) is outstanding, and one who attains in

that way the path of Stream-entry is called a Dhammadevotee

(dhammànusàri; s. ariya-puggala); at the next

two stages of sainthood he becomes a vision-attainer

(diññhippatta); and at the highest stage, i.e. Holiness, he

is called ‘liberated by wisdom’ (pa¤¤à-vimutta).

For further details, see paramattha-sacca, pañiccasamuppàda,

khandha, ti-lakkhaõa, nàma-råpa,

pañisandhi.

Literature: Anattà-lakkhana Sutta, Vinaya I, 13-14;

S. XXII, 59; tr. in Three Cardinal Discourses of the Buddha

(Wheel 17). – Another important text on Anattà is the

Discourse on the Snake Simile (Alagaddåpama Sutta, M. 22;

– 36 –

tr. in Wheel 48/49). Other texts in “Path”. – Further:

Anattà and Nibbàna, by Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel 11);

The Truth of Anattà, by Dr. G. P. Malalasekera (Wheel 94);

The Three Basic Facts of Existence III: Egolessness

(Wheel 202/204)

anattànupassanà: ‘contemplation of not-self’ is one of

the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà). See also

above.

anattà-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of not-self’; see A. VI, 104;

A. VII, 48; A. X, 60; Ud. IV, 1.

anattà-vàda: the ‘doctrine of impersonality’; s. anattà.

àne¤ja: ‘imperturbability’, denotes the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara; s. avacara); s. sankhàra.

cf. M. 106.

anger: s. måla.

anicca: ‘impermanent’ (or, as abstract noun, aniccatà,

‘impermanence’) is the first of the three characteristics

of existence (tilakkhana, q.v.). It is from the fact of

impermanence that, in most texts, the other two characteristics,

suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anattà), are

derived (S. XXII, 15; Ud. IV, I)

“Impermanence of things is the rising, passing and

changing of things, or the disappearance of things that

have become or arisen. The meaning is that these things

never persist in the same way, but that they are vanishing

dissolving from moment to moment” (Vis.M. VII, 3).

Impermanence is a basic feature of all conditioned

phenomena, be they material or mental, coarse or

– 37 –

subtle, one’s own or external: All formations are impermanent”

(sabbe sankhàrà aniccà; M. 35, Dhp. 277).

That the totality of existence is impermanent is also

often stated in terms of the five aggregates

(khandha, q.v.), the twelve personal and external sense

bases (àyatana q.v.), etc. Only Nibbàna (q.v.), which is

unconditioned and not a formation (asankhata), is

permanent (nicca, dhuva).

The insight leading to the first stage of deliverance,

Stream-entry (sotàpatti; s. ariya-puggala), is often

expressed in terms of impermanence: “Whatever is

subject to origination, is subject to cessation”

(s. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, S. XLVI, 11). In his

last exhortation, before his Parinibbàna, the Buddha

reminded his monks of the impermanence of existence

as a spur to earnest effort: “Behold now, Bhikkhus,

I exhort you: Formations are bound to vanish. Strive

earnestly!” (vayadhammà sankhàrà, appamàdena

sampàdetha; D. 16).

Without the deep insight into the impermanence

and insubstantiality of all phenomena of existence

there is no attainment of deliverance. Hence comprehension

of impermanence gained by direct meditative

experience heads two lists of insight knowledge:

(a) contemplation of impermanence (aniccànupassanà)

is the first of the 18 chief kinds of insight (q.v.); (b) the

contemplation of arising and vanishing

(udayabbayànupassanà-¤àõa) is the first of 9 kinds of

knowledge which lead to the ‘purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi, VI).

– Contemplation of impermanence leads to the condit-

38 –

ionless deliverance (animitta-vimokkha; s. vimokkha).

As herein the faculty of confidence (saddhindriya) is

outstanding, he who attains in that way the path of

Stream-entry is called a faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã;

s. ariya-puggala) and at the seven higher stages he is

called faith-liberated (saddhà-vimutta), – See also

anicca-sa¤¤à.

See The Three Basic Facts of Existence I: Impermanence

(Wheel 186/187)

aniccànupassanà: ‘contemplation of impermanence’,

is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà).

anicca-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of impermanence’, is

defined in the Girimananda Sutta (A.X. 60) as

meditation on the impermanence of the five groups of

existence.

“Though, with a faithful heart, one takes refuge in

the Buddha, his Teaching and the Community of

Monks; or with a faithful heart observes the rules of

morality, or develops a mind full of loving-kindness, far

more meritorious it is if one cultivates the perception of

impermanence, be it only for a moment” (A.X. 20).

See A. VI, 102; A. VII, 48; Ud. IV, 1; S. XXII, 102.

animitta-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

animittànupassanà: s. vipassanà.

animitta-vimokkha: s. vimokkha.

a¤¤a: ‘other’, being of the opposite category.

– 39 –

a¤¤à: ‘highest knowledge’, gnosis, refers to the perfect

knowledge of the Saint (Arahat; s. ariya-puggala). The

following passage occurs frequently in the Suttas, when

a monk indicates his attainment of Holiness (arahatta):

“He makes known highest knowledge (a¤¤aü

vyàkaroti), thus: ‘Rebirth has ceased, fulfilled is the

holy life, the task is accomplished, and there is no more

of this to come.’ ”

The ‘faculty of highest knowledge’ (a¤¤’ indriya =

a¤¤à-indriya; s. indriya), however, is present in six of

the eight stages of holiness, that is, beginning with the

fruition of Stream-Winning (sotàpatti-phala) up to the

path of Holiness (arahatta-magga). See Dhs. (PTS)

362-364, 505, 553; Indriya Vibhanga; “Path” 162.

a¤¤àma¤¤a-paccaya: ‘mutuality-condition,’ is one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

a¤¤àtàvindriya: ‘the faculty of one who knows’;

s. indriya, 22.

a¤¤indriya: ‘the faculty of highest knowledge’; s. a¤¤à

and indriya, 21.

anottappa: s. ahirika.

answering questions: 4 ways of: s. pa¤hà-byàkaraõa.

antarà-parinibbàyã: is one of the 5 kinds of Non-

Returners or Anàgàmã (q.v.).

antinomies: s. diññhi.

anuloma-citta: ‘adaptation-moment of consciousness’,

denotes the third of the 4 moments of impulsion

– 40 –

(javana, q.v.) flashing up immediately before either

reaching the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) or the supermundane

paths (s. ariya-puggala). These 4 moments of

impulsion are: the preparation (parikamma), access

(upacàra), adaptation (anuloma) and maturity

(gotrabhå) moments. For further details, s. javana,

gotrabhå.

anuloma-¤àõa: ‘adaptation-knowledge’ or conformityknowledge,

is identical with the ‘adaptation-to-truth

knowledge’, the last of 9 insight-knowledges

(vipassanà-¤àõa) which constitute the purification of

knowledge and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi

VI, 9). Cf. Vis.M. XXI.

anupàdisesa-nibbàna: see Nibbàna, upàdi.

anupassanà: ‘contemplation’ – 4 fold: s. satipaññhàna –

18 fold: s. vipassanà. – 7 fold: “The seven contemplation’s:

(1) Contemplating (formations) as impermanent,

one abandons the perception of permanence.

(2) Contemplating (them) as painful, one abandons

the perception of happiness (to be found in them).

(3) Contemplating (them) as not self, one abandons

the perception of self. (4) Becoming dispassionate, one

abandons delighting. (5) Causing fading away, one

abandons greed. (6) Causing cessation, one abandons

originating. (7) Relinquishing, one abandons grasping”

(Pts.M. I, p. 58). – See also Vis.M. XXI, 43; XXII, 114.

anupubba-nirodha: The 9 ‘successive extinctions’, are

the 8 extinctions reached through the 8 absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.) and the extinction of feeling and

– 41 –

perception’ (s. nirodha-samàpatti), as it is said in A. IX,

31 and D. 33:

“In him who has entered the 1st absorption, the

sensuous perceptions (kàma-sa¤¤à) are extinguished.

Having entered the 2nd absorption, thought-conception

and discursive thinking (vitakkavicàra, q.v.) are

extinguished. Having entered the 3rd absorption,

rapture (pãti, q.v.) is extinguished. Having entered the

4th absorption, in-and-out breathing (assàsapassàsa,

q.v.) are extinguished. Having entered the

sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana), the

corporeality perceptions (råpa-sa¤¤à) are extinguished.

Having entered the sphere of boundless consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana), the perception of the sphere of

boundless space is extinguished. Having entered the

sphere of nothingness (àki¤ca¤¤àyatana), the

perception of the sphere of boundless consciousness is

extinguished. Having entered the sphere of neitherperception-

nor-non-perception (neva-sa¤¤ànàsa¤¤

àyatana) the perception of the sphere of

nothingness is extinguished. Having entered the

extinction of perception and feeling (sa¤¤àvedayitanirodha)

perception and feeling are extinguished.” For

further details, s. jhàna, nirodha-samàpatti.

anupubba-vihàra: the 9 ‘successive abodes’, are

identical with the 9 anupubba-nirodha (s. above).

In A. IX, 33 they are called successive attainments

(anupubba-samàpatti).

ànupubbã-kathà: ‘gradual instruction’, progressive

sermon; given by the Buddha when it was necessary to

– 42 –

prepare first the listener’s mind before speaking to him

on the advanced teaching of the Four Noble Truths.

The stock passage (e.g. D. 3; D. 14; M. 56) runs as

follows:

“Then the Blessed One gave him a gradual instruction

– that is to say, he spoke on liberality (‘giving’,

dàna, q.v.), on moral conduct (sãla) and on the heavens

(sagga); he explained the peril, the vanity and the

depravity of sensual pleasures, and the advantages of

renunciation. When the Blessed One perceived that the

listener’s mind was prepared, pliant, free from

obstacles, elevated and lucid; then he explained to him

that exalted teaching particular to the Buddhas

(Buddhànaü sàmukkaüsikà desanà), that is: suffering,

its cause, its ceasing, and the path.”

anurakkhana-padhàna: the ‘effort to maintain’

wholesome states; s. padhàna.

anusaya: the 7 ‘proclivities’, inclinations, or tendencies

are: sensuous greed (kàma-ràga, s. saüyojana), grudge

(pañigha), speculative opinion (diññhi, q.v.), skeptical

doubt (vicikicchà, q.v.), conceit (màna, q.v.), craving for

continued existence (bhavaràga), ignorance

(avijjà, q.v.) (D. 33; A. VII, 11, 12).

“These things are called ‘proclivities’ since, in

consequence of their pertinacity, they ever and again

tend to become the conditions for the arising of ever

new sensuous greed, etc.’’ (Vis.M. XXII, 60).

Yam. VII, first determines in which beings such and

such proclivities exist, and which proclivities, and with

regard to what, and in which sphere of existence.

– 43 –

Thereafter it gives an explanation concerning their

overcoming, their penetration, etc. Cf. Guide VI (vii).

According to Kath. several ancient Buddhist schools

erroneously held the opinion that the anusayas, as

such, meant merely latent, hence karmically neutral

qualities, which however Contradicts the Theravàda

conception. Cf. Guide V, 88, 108, 139.

anussati: ‘recollection’, meditation, contemplation.

The six recollections often described in the Suttas

(e.g. A. VI, 10, 25; D. 33) are: (1) recollection of the

Buddha, (2) his Doctrine, (3) his Community of noble

disciples, (4) of morality, (5) liberality, (6) heavenly

beings (buddhànussati, dhammànussati, sanghànussati,

sãlànussati, càgànussati, devatànussati).

(1) “The noble disciple, Mahànàma, recollects

thus: ‘This Blessed One is holy, a fully Enlightened

One, perfected in wisdom and conduct, faring happily,

knower of the worlds, unsurpassed leader of men to be

trained, teacher of heavenly beings and men, a Buddha,

a Blessed One.’

(2) ‘Well proclaimed by the Blessed One is the

Doctrine (dhamma), directly visible, with immediate

fruit, inviting investigation, leading on to Nibbàna, to be

comprehended by the wise, each by himself.’

(3) ‘Of good conduct is the Community (Sangha)

of the Blessed One’s disciples, of upright conduct, living

on the right path, performing their duties, to wit: the

4 pairs of men or 8 individuals (s. ariya puggala). This

Community of the Blessed One’s disciples is worthy of

offerings, worthy of hospitality, worthy of gifts, worthy

– 44 –

of reverence with raised hands, the unsurpassed field

for doing meritorious deeds.’

(4) “The noble disciple further recollects his own

morality (sãla) which is unbroken, without any breach,

undefiled, untarnished, conducive to liberation, praised

by the wise, not dependent (on craving or opinions),

leading to concentration.

(5) “The noble disciple further recollects his own

liberality (càga) thus: ‘Blessed truly am I, highly blessed

am I who, amongst beings defiled with the filth of

stinginess, live with heart free from stinginess, liberal,

open-handed, rejoicing in giving, ready to give anything

asked for, glad to give and share with others.’

(6) “The noble disciple further recollects the

heavenly beings (devatà): ‘There are the heavenly

beings of the retinue of the Four Great Kings, the

heavenly beings of the World of the Thirty-Three, the

Yàmadevas… and there are heavenly beings besides

(s. deva). Such faith, such morality, such knowledge,

such liberality, such insight, possessed of which those

heavenly beings, after vanishing from here, are reborn

in those worlds, such things are also found in me.’ ”

(A. III,70; VI,10; XI,12).

“At the time when the noble disciple recollects the

Perfect One… at such a time his mind is neither

possessed of greed, nor of hate, nor of delusion. Quite

upright at such a time is his mind owing to the Perfect

One…. With upright mind the noble disciple attains

understanding of the sense, understanding of the law,

attains joy through the law. In the joyous one rapture

arises. With heart enraptured, his whole being becomes

– 45 –

stilled. Stilled within his being, he feels happiness; and

the mind of the happy one becomes firm. Of this noble

disciple it is said that amongst those gone astray, he

walks on the right path, among those suffering he

abides free from suffering. Thus having reached the

stream of the law, he develops the recollection of the

Enlightened One….” (A. VI, 10).

In A. I, 21 (PTS: I, xvi) and A. I, 27 (PTS: xx. 2)

another 4 recollections are added: mindfulness on

death (maraõa-sati, q.v.), on the body (kàyagatàsati,

q.v.), on breathing (ànàpàna-sati, q.v.), and the

recollection of peace (upasamànussati, q.v.).

The first six recollections are fully explained in

Vis.M. VII, the latter four in Vis.M. VIII.

aparàpariya-vedanãya-kamma: ‘karma bearing fruits

in later births’; s. karma.

aparihàna-dhamma: ‘incapable of relapse’, or ‘of falling

away’, namely, with regard to deliverance from

some or all fetters of existence (s. saüyojana). Thus all

noble disciples are called, i.e. all those who have

attained any of the 4 noble paths to holiness

(s. ariyapuggala). With regard to the absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.), anyone is called ‘unrelapsable’ who has

attained full mastery over the absorptions. See

A. VI, 62; Pug. 6. Cf. akuppa-dhamma.

aparihàniya-dhamma: ‘conditions of welfare’ (lit. of

non-decline), for a nation. Seven such conditions are

mentioned in the Mahà-Parinibbàna Sutta (D. 16).

They are followed by five sets of 7, and one set of

6 conditions, conducive to the welfare of the Com-

46 –

munity of Monks, the Sangha. Identical texts at A. VII,

20-25. To be distinguished from the preceding term.

apàya: The 4 ‘lower worlds’. are: the animal world,

ghost world, demon-world, hell. See Vis.M. XIII, 92f.

àpo-dhàtu: ‘water-element’; s. dhàtu.

appamàda: ‘zeal’, non-laxity, earnestness, diligence, is

considered as the foundation of all progress.

Just as all the footprints of living beings are surpassed

by the footprint of the elephant, and the footprint

of the elephant is considered as the mightiest

amongst them, just so have all the meritorious qualities

zeal as their foundation, and zeal is considered as the

mightiest of these qualities’’ (A. X, 15).

Cf. the Chapter on Zeal (Appamàda Vagga) in Dhp.,

and the Buddha’s last exhortation: “Transient are all

formations. Strive zealously!” (appamàdena

sampàdetha: D. 16) – In the commentaries, it is often

explained as the presence (lit. ‘non-absence’) of

mindfulness (satiyà avippavàsa).

appamàõàbha: a kind of heavenly being; s. deva, (II).

appamàõa-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

appamàõa-subha: a kind of heavenly being:

s. deva (II).

appama¤¤à: The 4 ‘Boundless States’, identical with

brahma-vihàra (q.v.).

– 47 –

appanà-samàdhi: ‘attainment concentration’ or ‘full

concentration’ (from apeti, to fix), is the concentration

existing during absorption (jhàna, q.v.), whilst the

neighbourhood or access-concentration (upacàrasamàdhi)

only approaches the 1st absorption without

attaining it; s. samàdhi.

appaõihita-vimokkha: s. vimokkha. –

Appaõihitànupassanà; s. vipassanà.

Appendants: The 3: ki¤cana (q.v.).

appicchatà: ‘having only few wishes’, contentedness, is

one of the indispensable virtues of the monk;

cf. A. X. 181-190, and ariyavaüsa (q.v.).

apu¤¤àbhisankhàra: s. sankhàra.

Arahat and arahatta-magga,-phala: s. ariya-puggala.

àrammaõa: ‘object’. There are six: visible object,

sound, odor, taste, body-impression, mind-object. The

mind-object (dhammàrammaõa) may be physical or

mental, past, present or future, real or imaginary. The

5 sense-objects belong to the corporeality-group (råpakkhandha,

s. khandha). They form the external

foundations for the sense-perceptions, and without

them no sense-perception or sense-consciousness

(seeing, hearing, etc.) can arise. Cf. àyatana, paccaya.

(App: paccaya 2.).

àrammaõàdhipati, àrammaõupanissaya: s. paccaya.

– 48 –

àra¤¤ikanga: The ‘exercise of the forest-dweller’, is

one of the ascetic purification-exercises

(dhutanga, q.v.).

arising and vanishing (of things). The knowledge

consisting in the contemplation of; s. visuddhi (VI. 1.).

ariya-iddhi: s. iddhi.

ariya-magga: s. foll.

ariya-puggala: or simply ariya: ‘Noble Ones’, ‘noble

persons’.

(A) The 8 a. are those who have realized one of

the 8 stages of holiness, i.e. the 4 supermundane paths

(magga) and the 4 supermundane fruitions (phala) of

these paths. There are 4 pairs:

1. The one realizing the path of Stream-winning

(sotàpattimagga).

2. The one realizing the fruition of Streamwinning

(sotàpattiphala).

3. The one realizing the path of Once-return

(sakadàgàmimagga).

4. The one realizing the fruition of Once-return

(sakadàgàmiphala).

5. The one realizing the path of Non-return

(anàgàmimagga).

6. The one realizing the fruition of Non-return

(anàgàmiphala).

7. The one realizing the path of Holiness

(arahatta-magga).

8. The one realizing the fruition of Holiness

(arahatta-phala).

– 49 –

Summed up, there are 4 noble individuals (ariyapuggala):

the Stream-winner (Sotàpanna), the Once-

Returner (Sakadàgàmi), the Non-Returner (Anàgàmã),

the Holy One (Arahat).

In A. VIII,10 and A. IX, 16 the gotrabhå (q.v.) is

listed as the 9th noble individual.

According to the Abhidhamma, ‘supermundane

path’, or simply ‘path’ (magga), is a designation of the

moment of entering into one of the 4 stages of holiness

– Nibbàna being the object – produced by intuitional

insight (vipassanà) into the impermanence, misery and

impersonality of existence, flashing forth and forever

transforming one’s life and nature. By ‘fruition’ (phala)

is meant those moments of consciousness which follow

immediately thereafter as the result of the path, and

which in certain circumstances may repeat for innumerable

times during the life-time.

(I) Through the path of Stream-winning (sotàpattimagga)

one ‘becomes’ free (whereas in realizing the

fruition, one ‘is’ free) from the first 3 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.) which bind beings to existence in the

sensuous sphere, to wit: (1) personality-belief

(sakkàya-diññhi; s. diññhi), (2) skeptical doubt

(vicikicchà, q.v.), (3) attachment to mere rules and

rituals (sãlabbata-paràmàsa; s. upàdàna).

(II) Through the path of Once-return (sakadàgàmimagga)

one becomes nearly free from the 4th and 5th

fetters, to wit: (4) sensuous craving (kàma-cchanda =

kàma-ràga; s. ràga), (5) ill-will (vyàpàda = dosa,

s. måla).

– 50 –

(III) Through the path of Non-return (anàgàmimagga)

one becomes fully free from the abovementioned

5 lower fetters.

(IV) Through the path of Holiness (arahattamagga)

one further becomes free from the 5 higher

fetters, to wit: (6) craving for fine material existence

(råpa-ràga), (7) craving for immaterial existence.

(aråpa-ràga), (8) conceit (màna, q.v.), (9) restlessness

(uddhacca, q.v.), (10) ignorance (avijjà, q.v.).

The stereotype Sutta text runs as follows:

(I) “After the disappearance of the three fetters, the

monk has won the stream (to Nibbàna) and is no more

subject to rebirth in lower worlds, is firmly established,

destined for full enlightenment.

(II) “After the disappearance of the three fetters

and reduction of greed, hatred and delusion, he will

return only once more; and having once more returned

to this world, he will put an end to suffering.

(III) “After the disappearance of the five fetters he

appears in a higher world, and there he reaches

Nibbàna without ever returning from that world (to the

sensuous sphere).

(IV) “Through the extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya)

he reaches already in this very life the

deliverance of mind, the deliverance through wisdom,

which is free from cankers, and which he himself has

understood and realized.”

For the various classes of Stream-winners and Non-

Returners, s. Sotàpanna, Anàgàmã.

– 51 –

(B) The sevenfold grouping of the noble disciples

is as follows:

(1) the faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã), (2) the faithliberated

one (saddhàvimutta), (3) the body-witness

(kàya-sakkhã), (4) the both-ways-liberated one

(ubhato-bhàga-vimutta), (5) the Dhamma-devotee

(dhammànusàrã), (6) the vision-attainer (diññhippatta),

(7) the wisdom-liberated one (pa¤¤à–vimutta). This

group of seven noble disciples is thus explained in

Vis.M. XXI, 73:

(1) “He who is filled with resolution

(adhimokkha) and, in considering the formations as

impermanent (anicca), gains the faculty of faith, he, at

the moment of the path to Stream-winning (A. 1) is

called a faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã); (2) at the seven

higher stages (A. 2-8) he is called a faith-liberated one

(saddhà-vimutta). (3) He who is filled with tranquillity

and, in considering the formations as miserable

(dukkha), gains the faculty of concentration, he in

every respect is considered as a body-witness (kàyasakkhã).

(4) He, however, who after reaching the

absorptions of the immaterial sphere has attained the

highest fruition (of Holiness), he is a both-waysliberated

one (ubhato-bhàga-vimutta). (5) He who is

filled with wisdom and, in considering the formations as

not-self (anattà), gains the faculty of wisdom, he is at

the moment of Stream-winning a Dhamma-devotee

(dhammànusàrã), (6) at the later stages (A. 2-7) a

vision-attainer (diññhippatta), (7) at the highest stage

(A. 8) a wisdom-liberated one (pa¤¤àvimutta).” –

Further details about the body-witness, the both-ways-

52 –

liberated one and the wisdom-liberated one, s. under

the three Pàli terms. Cf. also M. 70; A. IX, 44; S. XII, 70;

Pts.M. II, p. 33, PTS.

ariya-sacca: The Four ‘Noble Truths’; s. sacca.

ariya-vaüsa: The four ‘noble usage’s’, are: contentedness

(of the monk) with any robe, contentedness with

any alms-food, contentedness with any dwelling, and

delight in meditation and detachment. In the Ariyavaüsa

Sutta, (A. IV, 28) and similarly in D. 33, it is said:

“Now the monk is contented with any robe, with

any alms-food, with any dwelling, finds pleasure and

enjoyment in mental training and detachment. But

neither is he haughty on that account, nor does he look

down upon others. Now, of a monk who herein is fit

and indefatigable, who remains clearly conscious and

mindful, of such a monk it is said that he is firmly

established in the ancient, noble usage’s known as the

most lofty ones.”

Full tr. of Ariya-vaüsa Sutta in Wheel 83/84.

ariya-vihàra: s. vihàra.

aråpa-bhava: s. bhava, loka.

aråpa-jjhàna: – s. jhàna.

aråpa-kkhandha: The four ‘immaterial groups’ of

existence are: feeling, perception, mental formations,

consciousness; s. khandha.

aråpàvacara: s. avacara.

àruppa: s. jhàna.

– 53 –

asankhàra-parinibbàyã: The ‘one reaching Nibbàna

without exertion’, is one of the five classes of Non-

Returners (Anàgàmã, q.v.)

asankhàrika-citta: an Abhidhamma term signifying a

‘state of consciousness arisen spontaneously’, i.e. without

previous deliberation, preparation, or prompting by

others; hence: ‘unprepared, unprompted’. This term

and its counterpart (sasankhàrikacitta, q.v.), probably

go back to a similar distinction made in the Suttas

(A. IV, 171; “Path” 184). See Tab. I; examples in

Vis.M. XIV, 84f.

asankhata: The ‘Unformed, Unoriginated, Unconditioned’

is a name for Nibbàna, the beyond of all

becoming and conditionality.

asa¤¤a-satta: The ‘unconscious beings’, are a class of

heavenly beings in the fine-material world; s. deva (II).

“There are, O monks, heavenly beings known as the

unconscious ones. As soon, however, as in those beings

consciousness arises, those beings will vanish from that

world. Now, O monks, it may happen that one of those

beings after vanishing from that world, may reappear in

this world….” (D. 24). Further details, s. Kath.,

Yam. (Guide, pp. 68, 79, 96 ff.).

àsava: (lit: influxes), ‘cankers’, taints, corruption’s,

intoxicant biases. There is a list of four (as in D. 16,

Pts.M., Vibh.): the canker of sense-desire (kàmàsava),

of (desiring eternal) existence (bhavàsava), of

(wrong) views (diññhàsava), and of ignorance

(avijjàsava). A list of three, omitting the canker of views,

is possibly older and is more frequent in the Suttas,

– 54 –

e.g. in M. 2, M. 9, D. 33; A. III, 59, 67; A. VI, 63. – In

Vibh. (Khuddakavatthu Vibh.) both the 3-fold and

4-fold division are mentioned. The fourfold division

also occurs under the name of ‘floods’ (ogha) and

‘yokes’ (yoga).

Through the path of Stream-Entry, the canker of

views is destroyed; through the path of Non-Returning,

the canker of sense-desire; through the path of

Arahatship, the cankers of existence and ignorance.

M. 2 shows how to overcome the cankers, namely,

through insight, sense-control, avoidance, wise use of

the necessities of life, etc. For a commentarial exposition,

see Atthasàlini Tr. I, p. 63f: II, pp. 475ff.

Khãõàsava, ‘one whose cankers are destroyed’, or

‘one who is canker-free’, is a name for the Arahat or

Holy One. The state of Arahatship is frequently called

àsavakkhaya, ‘the destruction of the cankers’. Suttas

concluding with the attainment of Arahatship by the

listeners, often end with the words: “During this

utterance, the hearts of the Bhikkhus were freed from

the cankers through clinging no more” (anupàdàya

àsavehi cittàni vimuccimså’ti).

àsavakkhaya: see above.

ascending insight: s. vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà.

ascetic purification practices: s. dhutanga.

asekha: (lit.: ‘not-learner’; s. sekha), a disciple

‘perfected in training’, one beyond training, an adept.

This is a name for the Arahat, the Holy One (s. ariyapuggala),

since he has reached the perfection in higher

moral training, higher mind training and higher wisdom

– 55 –

training (s. sikkhà) and needs no longer to train himself

therein.

àsevana-paccaya: ‘repetition’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

asmi-màna: (lit.: ‘I am’-conceit), ‘ego-conceit’, may

range from the coarsest pride and self-assertion to a

subtle feeling of one’s distinctiveness or superiority that

persists, as the 8th fetter (saüyojana, q.v.), until the

attainment of Arahatship or Holiness. It is based upon

the comparison of oneself with others, and may, therefore,

manifest itself also as a feeling of inferiority or the

claim to be equal (s. màna). It has to be distinguished

from ‘ego-belief’ (sakkàya-diññhi, q.v.) which implies a

definite belief or view (diññhi) concerning the assumption

of a self or soul, and, being the 1st of the fetters,

disappears at attainment of Stream-Entry (sotàpatti;

s. ariya-puggala).

“Even when the five lower fetters have vanished in

a noble disciple, there is still in him, with regard to the

five groups of clinging, a slight undiscarded measure of

the conceit ‘I am’, of the will ‘I am’, of the proclivity

‘I am’ ” (S. XXII, 89). – s. màna.

assàsa-passàsa: ‘in-and-out-breathing’, are corporeal

or physical functions or ‘formations’ (kàya-sankhàra),

whilst thought-conception and discursive thinking

(vitakka and vicàra) are called verbal functions (vacãsankhàra),

s. sankhàra (2). In-and-out-breathing forms

one of the 6 aspects of the wind-element (s. dhàtu).

Cf. M. 62.

– 56 –

association: sampayutta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

asubha: ‘impurity’, loathsomeness, foulness. – In

Vis.M. VI, it is the cemetery contemplations

(sãvathika, q.v.) that are called ‘meditation-subjects of

impurity’ (asubha-kammaññhàna; s. bhàvanà). In the

Girimànanda Sutta (A. X., 50), however, the perception

of impurity (asubha-sa¤¤à) refers to the contemplation

of the 32 parts of the body (s. kàya-gatà-sati). The

contemplation of the body’s impurity is an antidote

against the hindrance of sense-desire (s. nãvaraõa) and

the mental perversion (vipallàsa, q.v.) which sees what

is truly impure as pure and beautiful. See S. XLVI, 51;

A. V. 36, Dhp. 7, 8; Sn. 193ff. – The Five Mental

Hindrances (Wheel 26), pp. 5ff.

asura: ‘demons’, titans, evil ghosts, inhabiting one of

the lower worlds (apàya, q.v.).

atappa: ‘the unworried’, is the name of a class of deities

(s. deva,) inhabiting the first of the five Pure Abodes

(suddhàvàsa, q.v.), in which the Anàgàmã (q.v.) has his

last rebirth.

atimàna: ‘superiority-conceit’; s. màna.

attà: ‘self, ego, personality, is in Buddhism a mere

conventional expression (vohàradesanà), and no

designation for anything really existing; s. paramatthadesanà,

anattà, puggala, satta, jãva.

attachments: s. paràmàsa.

– 57 –

atta-diññhi (-vàda): ‘ego-belief’, ‘personality-belief’,

s. diññhi.

attainment-concentration: appanà-samàdhi (q.v.);

s. samàdhi.

attainments, ‘The 8 a.’; s. samàpatti.

atta-kilamatha: ‘self-mortification’, is one of the two

extremes to be avoided, the other extreme being

addiction to sensual pleasures (kàma-sukha), whilst the

Noble 8-fold Path constitutes the Middle Path

(majjhima-pañipadà, q.v.). See the Buddha’s first

sermon, “The Establishment of the Realm of Dhamma”

(Dhamma-cakkappavattana-Sutta).

atta-sa¤¤à (°citta, °diññhi): ‘perception (consciousness,

view) of an ego’, is one of the 4 perversions

(vipallàsa, q.v.).

atta-vàdupàdàna: ‘attachment to the ego-belief’, is

one of the 4 kinds of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

attention: s. manasikàra.

attentiveness, attention, mindfulness; s. sati,

satipaññhàna.

aññhangika-magga: The ‘Eightfold Path’; s. magga.

aññha-pañisambhidà: The ‘analytical knowledge of

meaning’, is one of the 4 kinds of analytical knowledge

(pañisambhidà, q.v.).

atthi-paccaya: ‘presence’, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

– 58 –

auditory organ: s. àyatana.

avacara: ‘sphere’, realm. The 3 spheres of existence

are: the sensuous sphere (kàmàvacara), the finematerial

sphere (råpàvacara), the immaterial sphere

(aråpàvacara). “Which things are of the sensuous

sphere (kàmàvacara)? Whatever things exist within the

interval bounded beneath by the Avãci-hell and above

by the Paranimmitavasavatti-heaven (s. deva), having

therein their sphere, and being therein included, to wit:

the groups of existence, the elements, bases

(s. khandha, dhàtu, àyatana), corporeality, feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness, all

these things are of the sensuous sphere. – But which

things are of the fine material sphere (råpàvacara)?

Whatever things exist within the interval bounded

beneath by the Brahma-world and above by the

Akaniññha-world (s. deva), having therein their sphere,

and being therein included… and also consciousness

and mental factors in one who has entered the (finematerial)

absorptions, or who has been reborn in that

sphere, or who already during his life-time is living in

happiness (of the absorptions), all these things are of

the fine-material sphere. – Which things are of the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara)? Consciousness and

mental factors arising within the interval bounded beneath

by the beings reborn in the sphere of unbounded

space and above by the beings reborn in the sphere of

neither-perception-nor-non-perception (s. jhàna 5-8),

and consciousness and mental factors in one who has

entered the (immaterial absorptions), or who has been

reborn in that sphere, or who already during his lifetime

is living in happiness (of the immaterial absorp-

59 –

tions), all these things are of the immaterial sphere.”

(Cf. Dhs. 1280, 1282, 1284; Vibh. XVIII). (App.).

àvajjana: ‘advertence’ of the mind towards the object,

forms the first stage in the process of consciousness

(s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca). If an object of the 5 physical senses

is concerned, it is called ‘five-door advertence’ (pa¤ca

dvàràvajjana); in the case of a mental object, ‘minddoor

advertence’ (mano-dvàràvajjana).

aversion (from existence), contemplation of:

s. vipassanà (VI. 5)

avãci is the name of one of the most frightful hells

(niraya, q.v.).

avigata-paccaya: ‘non-disappearance’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

aviha (derivation uncertain; Sanskrit avçha) is one of

the five Pure Abodes (suddhàvàsa, q.v.) in the finematerial

sphere. For details, s. under Anàgàmã.

avihiüsà (equivalents: ahiüsà, avihesà): ‘harmlessness’,

nonviolence, absence of cruelty. The ‘thought of

harmlessness’ (or: ‘non-cruelty’; avihiüsà-vitakka) is

one of the three constituents of right thought (sammàsankappa),

i.e. the 2nd factor of the Eightfold Path

(s. magga). In the several lists of ‘elements’ (dhàtu)

appears also an ‘element of harmlessness’ (avihesàdhàtu),

in the sense of an elementary quality of noble

thought. See Dhp. 225, 261, 270, 300.

avijjà: ‘ignorance,’ nescience, unknowing; synonymous

with delusion (moha, s. måla), is the primary root of all

– 60 –

evil and suffering in the world, veiling man’s mental

eyes and preventing him from seeing the true nature of

things. It is the delusion tricking beings by making life

appear to them as permanent, happy, substantial and

beautiful and preventing them from seeing that everything

in reality is impermanent, liable to suffering, void

of ‘I’ and ‘mine’, and basically impure (s. vipallàsa).

Ignorance is defined as ‘not knowing the four truths,

namely, suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the way

to its cessation’ (S. XII, 4).

As ignorance is the foundation of all life-affirming

actions, of all evil and suffering, therefore it stands first

in the formula of Dependent Origination (pañiccasamuppàda,

q.v.). But for that reason, says Vis.M. (XVII,

36f) ignorance should not be regarded as “the causeless

root-cause of the world…. It is not causeless. For a

cause of it is stated thus ‘With the arising of cankers

(àsava, q.v.) there is the arising of ignorance’ (M. 9).

But there is a figurative way in which it can be treated

as a root-cause; namely, when it is made to serve as a

starting point in an exposition of the Round of Existence….

As it is said: ‘No first beginning of ignorance can

be perceived, Bhikkhus, before which ignorance was

not, and after which it came to be. But it can be perceived

that ignorance has its specific condition (idappaccaya)”

(A. X, 61). The same statement is made (A. X, 62)

about the craving for existence (bhava-taõhà; s. taõhà).

The latter and ignorance are called “the outstanding

causes of kamma that lead to unhappy and happy

destinies” (Vis.M. XVII, 38).

As ignorance still exists – though in a very refined

way until the attainment of Arahatship or Holiness, it is

– 61 –

counted as the last of the 10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.)

which bind beings to the cycle of rebirths. As the first

two roots of evil, greed and hate (s. måla), are on their

part rooted in ignorance, consequently all unwholesome

states of mind are inseparably bound up with it.

Ignorance (or delusion) is the most obstinate of the

three roots of evil.

Ignorance is one of the cankers (àsava, q.v.) and

proclivities (anusaya, q.v.). It is often called a hindrance

(nãvaraõa; e.g. in S.XV, 3; A.X, 61) but does not

appear together with the usual list of five hindrances.

avikkhepa: ‘undistractedness’, is a synonym of

concentration (samàdhi, q.v.), one-pointedness of mind

(citt’ekaggatà) and tranquillity (samatha, q.v.; further

s. samatha-vipassanà).

avoidance and performance: s. càritta, etc. – The

effort to avoid, s. padhàna.

avyàkata: lit. ‘indeterminate’ – i.e. neither determined

as karmically ‘wholesome’ nor as ‘unwholesome’ – are

the karmically neutral, i.e. amoral, states of consciousness

and mental factors. They are either mere karmaresults

(vipàka, q.v.), as e.g. all the sense perceptions

and the mental factors associated therewith, or they are

karmically independent functions (kiriya-citta, q.v.),

i.e. neither karmic nor karma-resultant. See

Tab. I. (App.).

avyàpàda: ‘hatelessness’, non-ill-will, goodness; is one

of the three kinds of right thought (s. sacca, IV. 2), or

wholesome thoughts (vitakka, q.v.) and is the 9th of the

10 wholesome courses of actions (kammapatha II. q.v.).

– 62 –

The most frequently used synonyms are adosa (s. måla)

and mettà (s. brahma-vihàra).

awakenment: s. bodhi.

àyatana: 1. ‘spheres’, is a name for the four immaterial

absorptions; s. jhàna (5-8).

2. The 12 ‘bases’ or ‘sources’ on which depend the

mental processes, consist of five physical sense-organs

and consciousness, being the six personal (ajjhattika)

bases; and the six objects, the so-called external

(bàhira) bases – namely:

eye, or visual organ visible object

ear, or auditory organ sound, or audible object

nose, or olfactory organ odour, or olfactive object

tongue, or gustatory organ taste, or gustative object

body, or tactile organ body-impression, or

tactile object

mind-base, or consciousness mind-object

(manàyatana) (dhammàyatana)

“By the visual organ (cakkhàyatana) is meant the

sensitive part of the eye (cakkhu-pasàda) built up of the

four elements… responding to sense-stimuli”

(sa-ppañigha)…. (Vibh. II). Similar is the explanation of

the four remaining physical sense-organs.

Mind-base (manàyatana) is a collective term for all

consciousness whatever, and should therefore not be

confounded with the mind-element (mano-dhàtu;

s. dhàtu II, 16), which latter performs only the functions

of adverting (àvajjana) to the sense-object, and of

receiving (sampañicchana) the sense-object. On the

functions of the mind, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

– 63 –

The visible object (råpàyatana) is described in

Vibh. II as “that phenomenon which is built up of the

four physical elements and appears as color, etc.” What

is seen by-visual perception, i.e. by eye-consciousness

(cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa) are colors and differences of light,

but not three dimensional bodily things.

‘Mind-object-base’ (dhammàyatana) is identical

with ‘mind-object-element’ (dhamma-dhàtu; s. dhàtu II)

and dhammàrammana (s. àrammaõa). It may be

physical or mental, past, present or future, real or

imaginary.

The 5 physical sense-organs are also called faculties

(indriya, q.v.), and of these faculties it is said in

M. 43: “Each of the five faculties owns a different

sphere, and none of them partakes of the sphere of

another one;… they have mind as their support… are

conditioned by vitality,… but vitality again is conditioned

by heat, heat again by vitality, just as the light

and flame of a burning lamp are mutually conditioned.”

The 12 bases are fully discussed in Vis.M. XV. In

Yam. III (s. Guide, p. 98f) the 12 terms are subjected to

a logical investigation The six personal bases form the

5th link of dependent origination (pañicca-samuppàda

5, q.v.).

àyåhana: (karmic)‘accumulation’, is a name used in

the commentarial literature for the wholesome and

unwholesome volitional activities (karma, q.v.) or

karma-formations (sankhàra; s. pañicca-samuppàda),

being the bases of future rebirth. “ ‘Accumulation’, is a

name for the karma-formations, and signifies those

volitions (cetanà) which arise at the performance of a

– 64 –

karma, first while thinking ‘I will give alms’, and then

while actually giving alms (e.g.) for one month or a

year. The volition, however, at the time when one is

handing the alms over to the recipient; is called karmaprocess

(kamma-bhava, s. Vis.M. XVII, IX, X). Or, the

volitions during the first six impulsive-moments

(javana, q.v.) depending on one and the same state of

advertence (àvajjana, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca), these are called

the karma-formations, whilst the 7th impulsive moment

is called the karma-process (kamma-bhava)…. Or, each

volition is called ‘karma-process’ and the accumulation

connected with it, ‘karma-formation’.” (Vis.M. XVII).

Cf. pañicca-samuppàda (2, 10) – (App.).

– 65 –

B

bahula-kamma: ‘habitual karma’: s. karma.

bala: ‘powers’. Among various groups of powers the

following five are most frequently met with in the texts:

(1) faith (saddhà, q.v.), (2) energy (viriya, q.v.),

(3) mindfulness (sati, q.v.), (4) concentration

(samàdhi, q.v.), (5) wisdom (pa¤¤à, q.v.).

Their particular aspect, distinguishing them from

the corresponding 5 spiritual faculties (indriya, q.v.), is

that they are unshakable by their opposites: (1) the

power of faith is unshakable by faithlessness

(unbelief); (2) energy, by laziness; (3) mindfulness, by

forgetfulness; (4) concentration, by distractedness;

(5) wisdom, by ignorance (see Pts.M., ¥àõa Kathà).

They represent, therefore, the aspect of firmness in the

spiritual faculties.

According to A.V. 15, the power (1) becomes

manifest in the 4 qualities of the Stream-winner

(sotàpannassa angàni, q.v.), (2) in the 4 right efforts

(s. padhàna), (3) in the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.), (4) in the 4 absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.), (5) in the (full comprehension of

the) 4 Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.).

Cf. S. XLVIII, 43; S. L. (Bala Saüyutta).

In A. VII, 3, the powers of moral shame (hiri, q.v.)

and moral dread (ottappa) are added to the aforementioned

five Several other groups of 2 (s. pañisankhànabala),

4, 5 and more powers are mentioned in the texts.

– About the 10 powers of a Buddha, s. dasa-bala.

– 66 –

balance of mental faculties: indriya samatta (q.v.).

bases: The 12 of the perceptual process:

àyatana (q.v.).

beautiful: sobhana (q.v.).

beauty, deliverance through the perception of:

cf. vimokkha (II. 3). To hold for beautiful or pure

(subha) what is impure (asubha), is one of the

4 perversions (s. vipallàsa).

behaviour, morality consisting in good:

abhisamàcàrikasãla (q.v.).

being, living: satta (q.v.); further s. puggala. – Belief in

eternal personality: bhava-diññhi (s. diññhi), sassatadiññhi

(q.v.).

beings, The 9 worlds of: sattàvàsa (q.v.).

belief, blind: s. indriya-samatta.

bhangànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in

contemplation of dissolution’ (of all forms of

existence), is one kind of insight: s. visuddhi (VI, 2).

bhava: ‘becoming’, ‘process of existence’, consists of

3 planes: sensuous existence (kàma-bhava), finematerial

existence (råpa-bhava), immaterial existence

(aråpa-bhava). Cf. loka.

The whole process of existence may be divided into

two aspects:

(1) Karma-process (kamma-bhava), i.e. the karmically

active side of existence, being the cause of rebirth

and consisting in wholesome and unwholesome volitional

actions. See Karma, pañicca-samuppàda (IX).

– 67 –

(2) Karma-produced rebirth, or regenerating process

(uppattibhava), i.e. the karmically passive side of

existence consisting in the arising and developing of the

karma-produced and therefore morally neutral mental

and bodily phenomena of existence. Cf. Tab. – (App.).

bhàva: (feminine and masculine) ‘nature’, refers to the

sexual characteristics of the body, and belongs to the

group of corporeality (s. khandha). It is a commentarial

term for the faculties of femininity and masculinity

(s. indriya 7, 8). (App.).

bhava-diññhi: ‘belief in being’ (eternal personality);

s. sassatadiññhi, diññhi.

bhàvanà: ‘mental development’ (lit. ‘calling into

existence, producing’) is what in English is generally

but rather vaguely called ‘meditation’. One has to

distinguish 2 kinds: development of tranquillity

(samatha-bhàvanà), i.e. concentration (samàdhi), and

development of insight (vipassanà-bhàvanà),

i.e. wisdom (pa¤¤à).

These two important terms, tranquillity and insight

(s. samatha-vipassanà), are very often met with and

explained in the Sutta, as well as in the Abhidhamma.

Tranquillity (samatha) is the concentrated, unshaken,

peaceful, and therefore undefiled state of

mind, whilst insight (vipassanà) is the intuitive insight

into the impermanence, misery and impersonality

(anicca, dukkha, anattà; s. tilakkhaõa) of all bodily and

mental phenomena of existence, included in the

5 groups of existence, namely, corporeality, feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness;

s. khandha.

– 68 –

Tranquillity, or concentration of mind, according to

Sankhepavaõõana (Commentary to Abhidhammatthasangaha),

bestows a threefold blessing: favourable rebirth,

present happy life, and purity of mind which is

the condition of insight. Concentration (samàdhi) is the

indispensable foundation and precondition of insight

by purifying the mind from the 5 mental defilements or

hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.), whilst insight

(vipassanà) produces the 4 supra mundane stages of

holiness and deliverance of mind. The Buddha therefore

says: “May you develop mental concentration,

O monks; for who is mentally concentrated, sees things

according to reality” (S. XXII, 5). And in Mil. it is said:

“Just as when a lighted lamp is brought into a dark

chamber, the lamp-light will destroy the darkness and

produce and spread the light, just so will insight, once

arisen, destroy the darkness of ignorance and produce

the light of knowledge.”

Vis.M. III-XI gives full directions how to attain full

concentration and the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) by

means of the following 40 meditation subjects

(kammaññhàna):

10 kasina-exercises (s. kasiõa). These produce the

4 absorptions.

10 loathsome subjects (asubha, q.v.). These produce

the 1st absorption.

10 recollections (anussati, q.v.): of the Buddha

(buddhànussati), the Doctrine (dhammànussati), the

Brotherhood of the Noble Ones (sanghànussati), morality,

liberality, the heavenly beings, death (maraõasati,

q.v.), the body (kàyagatàsati, q.v.), in-and-outbreathing

(ànàpàna-sati, q.v.) and peace (upasamànussati, q.v.).

– 69 –

Among these, the recollection (or mindfulness) of inand-

out breathing may produce all the 4 absorptions,

that of the body the 1st absorption, the rest only neighbourhood-

concentration (upacàra-samàdhi, s. samàdhi).

4 sublime abodes (brahma-vihàra, q.v.): lovingkindness,

compassion, altruistic joy, equanimity (mettà,

karuõà, mudità, upekkhà). Of these, the first 3 exercises

may produce 3 absorptions, the last one the 4th

absorption only.

4 immaterial spheres (aråpàyatana, s. jhàna): of

unbounded space, unbounded consciousness,

nothingness, neither-perception-nor-non-perception.

These are based upon the 4th absorption.

1 perception of the loathsomeness of food (àhàre

pañikkåla-sa¤¤à), which may produce neighbourhoodconcentration.

1 analysis of the 4 elements (catudhàtu-vavatthàna,

s. dhàtu-vavatthàna), which may produce

neighbourhood-concentration.

Mental development forms one of the 3 kinds of

meritorious action (pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu, q.v.). ‘Delight

in meditation’ (bhàvanà-ràmatà) is one of the noble

usages (ariya-vaüsa, q.v.).

bhàvanà-bala: s. pañisankhàna-bala.

bhàvanà-maya-pa¤¤à: wisdom based on mental

development’; s. pa¤¤à

bhavanga-santàna: ‘continuity of subconsciousness’;

s. santàna

bhavanga-sota and bhavanga-citta: The first term

may tentatively be rendered as the ‘undercurrent form-

70 –

ing the condition of being, or existence’, and the second

as ‘subconsciousness’, though, as will be evident from

the following, it differs in several respects from the

usage of that term in Western psychology. Bhavanga

(bhava-anga), which, in the canonical works, is mentioned

twice or thrice in the Paññhàna, is explained in

the Abhidhamma commentaries as the foundation or

condition (kàraõa) of existence (bhava), as the sine qua

non of life, having the nature of a process, lit. a flux or

stream (sota). Herein, since time immemorial, all impressions

and experiences are, as it were, stored up, or

better said, are functioning, but concealed as such tofull

consciousness, from where however they occasionally

emerge as subconscious phenomena and approach

the threshold of full consciousness, or crossing it become

fully conscious. This so-called ‘subconscious lifestream’

or undercurrent of life is that by which might be

explained the faculty of memory, paranormal psychic

phenomena, mental and physical growth, karma and

rebirth. etc. An alternative rendering is ‘life-continuum’.

It should be noted that bhavanga-citta is a karmaresultant

state of consciousness (vipàka, q.v.), and that,

in birth as a human or in higher forms of existence, it is

always the result of good, or wholesome karma

(kusala-kamma-vipàka), though in varying degrees of

strength (s. pañisandhi, end of the article). The same

holds true for rebirth consciousness (pañisandhi) and

death consciousness (cuti), which are only particular

manifestations of subconsciousness. In Vis.M. XIV it is

said:

“As soon as rebirth-consciousness (in the embryo at

the time of conception) has ceased, there arises a simi-

71 –

lar subconsciousness with exactly the same object, following

immediately upon rebirth-consciousness and

being the result of this or that karma (volitional action

done in a former birth and remembered there at the

moment before death). And again a further similar state

of subconsciousness arises. Now, as long as no other

consciousness arises to interrupt the continuity of the

life-stream, so long the life-stream, like the flow of a

river, rises in the same way again and again, even during

dreamless sleep and at other times. In this way one

has to understand the continuous arising of those states

of consciousness in the life-stream.” Cf. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

For more details, s. Fund. 11. (App.).

bhava-taõhà: ‘craving for (eternal) existence’;

s. taõhà.

bhavàsava: ‘canker of existence’; s. àsava.

bhayatupaññhàna-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in the

awareness of terror’, is one of those kinds of insightknowledge

that form the ‘purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi, VI.).

bhikkhu: A fully ordained disciple of the Buddha is

called a bhikkhu. “Mendicant monk” may be suggested

as the closest equivalent for “Bhikkhu”, literally it

means “he who begs” but bhikkhus do not beg. They

silently stand at the door for alms. They live on what is

spontaneously given by the supporters. He is not a

priest as he is no mediator between God and man. He

has no vows for life, but he is bound by his rules which

he takes of his own accord. He leads a life of voluntary

– 72 –

poverty and celibacy. If he is unable to live the Holy

Life, he can discard the robe at any time.

bhojane matta¤¤utà: ‘knowing the measure in

eating’.

“Now, O monks, the monk wisely reflecting partakes

of his almsfood, neither for pastime, nor for indulgence,

nor to become beautiful or handsome, but only

to maintain and support this body, to avoid harm and

to assist the holy life, knowing: ‘In this way I shall dispel

the former pain (of hunger, etc.) and no new pain

shall I let arise, and long life, blamelessness and ease

will be my share ‘ This, O monks, is knowing the measure

in eating.” (A. III. 16). “How O monks, would it be

possible for Nanda to lead the absolutely pure life of

holiness, if he did not watch over his senses and did not

know the measure in eating?” (A. VII, 9).

biases: s. àsava.

birth process: upapatti-bhava: s. bhava. Further

s. pañisandhi, jàti.

bodhi (from verbal root budhi, to awaken, to

understand): awakenment, enlightenment, supreme

knowledge. “(Through Bodhi) one awakens from the

slumber or stupor (inflicted upon the mind) by the

defilements (kilesa, q.v.) and comprehends the Four

Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.)” (Com. to M. 10).

The enlightenment of a Buddha is called sammàsambodhi

(q.v.) ‘perfect enlightenment’. The faith

(saddhà, q.v.) of a lay follower of the Buddha is described

as “he believes in the enlightenment of the

Perfect One” (saddahati Tathàgatassa bodhiü: M. 53,

A. III, 2).

– 73 –

As components of the state of enlightenment and

contributory factors to its achievement, are mentioned

in the texts: the 7 factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga (q.v.) =

bodhi-anga) and the 37 ‘things pertaining to enlightenment’

(bodhipakkhiya-dhammà, q.v.). In one of the

later books of the Sutta-Piñaka, the Buddhavaüsa,

10 bodhipàcana-dhammà are mentioned, i.e. qualities

that lead to the ripening of perfect enlightenment;

these are the 10 perfections (pàramã, q.v.).

There is a threefold classification of enlightenment:

1. that of a noble disciple (sàvaka-bodhi, q.v.). i.e. of an

Arahat, 2. of an Independently Enlightened One

(pacceka-bodhi, q.v.), and 3. of a Perfect Enlightened

One (sammà-sambodhi). This 3-fold division, however,

is of later origin, and in this form it neither occurs in the

canonical texts nor in the older Sutta commentaries.

The closest approximation to it is found in a verse sutta

which is probably of a comparatively later period, the

Treasure Store Sutta (Nidhikkanda Sutta) of the

Khuddakapàtha, where the following 3 terms are

mentioned in stanza 15: sàvaka-pàramã, pacceka-bodhi,

buddha-bhåmi (see Khp. Tr., pp. 247f.).

The commentaries (e.g. to M., Buddhavaüsa,

Cariyapiñaka) generally give a 4-fold explanation of the

word bodhi: 1. the tree of enlightenment, 2. the holy

path (ariya-magga), 3. Nibbàna, 4 omniscience (of the

Buddha: sabba¤¤utà-¤àõa). As to (2), the commentaries

quote Cula-Nidesa where bodhi is defined as the

knowledge relating to the 4 paths (of Stream-entry, etc.;

catåsu maggesu ¤àõa).

Neither in the canonical texts nor in the old

commentaries is it stated that a follower of the Buddha

– 74 –

may choose between the three kinds of enlightenment

and aspire either to become a Buddha, a Pacceka-

Buddha, or an Arahat-disciple. This conception of a

choice between three aspirations is, however, frequently

found in present-day Theravàda countries, e.g. in

Sri Lanka.

bodhipakkhiya-dhammà: The 37 ‘things pertaining to

enlightenment’, or ‘requisites of enlightenment’ comprise

the entire doctrines of the Buddha. They are:

the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.),

the 4 right efforts (s. padhàna),

the 4 roads to power (iddhi-pàda, q.v.),

the 5 spiritual faculties (indriya; s. bala),

the 5 spiritual powers (bala, q.v.),

the 7 factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.),

the Noble 8-fold Path (s. magga).

In M. 77 all the 37 bodhipakkhiya-dhammà are

enumerated and explained though not called by that

name. A detailed explanation of them is given in

Vis.M. XXII. In S.XLVII, 51, 67, only the five spiritual

faculties (indriya) are called bodhipakkhiya-dhammà;

and in the Jhàna Vibhanga, only the 7 factors of

enlightenment (bojjhanga).

See The Requisites of Enlightenment, by Ledi Sayadaw

(Wheel 169/172).

Bodhisatta: ‘Enlightenment Being’, is a being destined

to Buddhahood, a future Buddha. According to the

traditional belief a Bodhisatta, before reaching his last

birth as a Buddha on this earth, is living in the Tusitaheaven

(s. deva), the heaven of bliss. Cf. A. IV, 127; VIII, 70.

– 75 –

In the Pàli Canon and commentaries, the designation

‘Bodhisatta’ is given only to Prince Siddhattha before

his enlightenment and to his former existences.

The Buddha himself uses this term when speaking of his

life prior to enlightenment (e.g. M. 4, M. 26). Bodhisattahood

is neither mentioned nor recommended as an

ideal higher than or alternative to Arahatship; nor is

there any record in the Pàli scriptures of a disciple

declaring it as his aspiration. – See bodhi.

bodily action (wholesome or unwholesome);

s. karma, karma formations – Right b.a. = sammàkammanta;

s. magga.

bodily postures, the 4: iriyà-patha (q.v.)

body: kàya (q.v.) Contemplation on the b. is one of the

4 satipaññhàna (q.v.).

body-witness: kàya-sakkhi (q.v.).

bojjhanga: ‘the 7 factors of enlightenment’, are: mindfulness

(sati-sambojjhanga; s. sati), investigation of the

law (dhamma-vicaya-sambojjhanga), energy (viriyasambojjhanga;

s. viriya, padhàna), rapture (pãtisambojjhanga,

q.v.) tranquillity (passaddhisambojjhanga,

q.v.), concentration (samàdhisambojjhanga,

q.v.), equanimity (upekkhà, q.v.).

“Because they lead to enlightenment, therefore they

are called factors of enlightenment” (S. XLVI, 5).

Though in the 2nd factor, dhamma-vicaya, the

word dhamma is taken by most translators to stand for

the Buddhist doctrine, it probably refers to the bodily

and mental phenomena (nàma-råpa-dhammà) as presented

to the investigating mind by mindfulness, the 1st

– 76 –

factor. With that interpretation, the term may be rendered

by ‘investigation of phenomena’.

In A.X. 102, the 7 factors are said to be the means

of attaining the threefold wisdom (s. tevijjà).

They may be attained by means of the 4 foundations

of mindfulness (satipaññhàna, q.v.), as it is said in

S. XLVI, 1 and explained in M. 118:

(1) “Whenever, O monks, the monk dwells contemplating

the body (kàya), feeling (vedanà), mind

(citta) and mind-objects (dhammà), strenuous, clearlyconscious,

mindful, after subduing worldly greed and

grief, at such a time his mindfulness is present and

undisturbed; and whenever his mindfulness is present

and undisturbed, at such a time he has gained and is

developing the factor of enlightenment ‘mindfulness’

(sati-sambojjhanga), and thus this factor of enlightenment

reaches fullest perfection.

(2) “Whenever, while dwelling with mindfulness,

he wisely investigates, examines and thinks over the

law… at such a time he has gained and is developing

the factor of enlightenment ‘investigation of the law’

(dhamma-vicaya°)….

(3) “Whenever, while wisely investigating his

energy is firm and unshaken… at such a time he has

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘energy’ (viriya°)….

(4) “Whenever in him, while firm in energy, arises

supersensuous rapture… at such a time he has gained

and is developing the factor of enlightenment ‘rapture’

(pãti°)….

(5) “Whenever, while enraptured in mind, his body

and his mind become composed… at such a time he has

– 77 –

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘tranquillity’ (passaddhi°).

(6) “Whenever, while being composed in his body

and happy, his mind becomes concentrated… at such a

time he has gained and is developing the factor of

enlightenment ‘concentration’ (samàdhi°)

(7) “Whenever he looks with complete indifference

on his mind thus concentrated… at such a time he has

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘equanimity’ (upekkhà).

Literature: Bojjhanga Saüyutta (S. XLVI); Bojjhanga

Vibh. – For the conditions leading to the arising of each of

the factors, see the Com. to Satipaññhàna Sutta (Way of

Mindfulness, by Soma Thera; 3rd ed., 1967, BPS). Further,

The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, by Piyadassi Thera

(Wheel 1.)

bondages, mental: cetaso vinibandha (q.v.).

bonds, the 4: yoga (q.v.).

both-ways liberated, s. ubhato-bhàga-vimutta,

ariyapuggala B. 4.

boundless consciousness (and b. space), Sphere of:

s. jhàna 5, 6.

brahma-cariya: ‘pure (chaste) or holy life’, is a term

for the life of the monk. Also a lay-devotee who observes

the 8 moral precepts (sikkhàpada, q.v.), takes as

the third precept the vow of chastity, i.e. full abstention

from sexual relations. The highest aim and purpose of

b. is, according to M. 29, the ‘unshakable deliverance of

mind’ (akuppà ceto-vimutti).

– 78 –

brahma-kàyika-deva: The ‘heavenly beings of the

Brahma-world’ inhabit the first 3 heavens of the finematerial

world, (råpaloka), corresponding to the 1st

absorption (jhàna, q.v.). The highest ruler of them is

called the Great Brahma (Mahà-Brahmà). With caustic

humor he is said (D. 11) to pretend: “I am Brahma, the

Great Brahmà, the Most High, the Invincible One, the

Omniscient One, the Ruler, the Lord, the Creator, the

Maker, the Perfect One, the Preserver, the Controller,

the Father of all that was and will be.” Cf. deva (II. 1-3).

brahma-loka: ‘Brahma-world’, in the widest sense, is a

name for the fine-material (råpa-loka) and immaterial

world (aråpa-loka); in a narrower sense, however, only

for the first three heavens of the fine-material world.

Cf. Brahma-kàyika-deva.

brahma-vihàra: the 4 ‘sublime’ or ‘divine abodes’, also

called the 4 boundless states (appama¤¤à), are: lovingkindness

(mettà), compassion (karuõà), altruistic (or

sympathetic) joy (mudità), equanimity (upekkhà).

The stereotype text on the development of these

4 sublime abodes (brahma-vihàra-bhàvanà;

s. bhàvanà), often met with in the Suttas,- is as follows:

“There, O monks, the monk with a mind full of lovingkindness

pervading first one direction, then a second

one, then a third one, then the fourth one, just so

above, below and all around; and everywhere

identifying himself with all, he is pervading the whole

world with mind full of loving-kindness, with mind

wide, developed, unbounded, free from hate and ill-

79 –

will.” Hereafter follows the same theme with compassion,

altruistic joy, and equanimity.

Literature: Detailed explanation in Vis.M. IX. – For texts

s. “Path”, 97ff; texts on mettà in The Practice of Loving

Kindness, by ¥ànamoli Thera (Wheel 7). – The Four

Sublime States, by Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel 6). –

Brahma Vihàra, by Narada Thera (Vajirarama, Colombo,

1962).

breathing, mindfulness of in-and-out-breathing

ànàpànasati (q.v.).

Buddha: s. sammà-sambodhi.

buddhànussati: ‘recollection of the Enlightened One’;

s. anussati.

Buddha-sàsana: s. sàsana.

– 80 –

C

càga: ‘liberality’, is one of the ‘blessings’ (s. sampadà),

‘foundations’ (s. adhiññhàna), ‘recollections’

(s. anussati), ‘treasures’ (s. dhana).

cakka: ‘wheel’, is one of the seven ‘precious possessions’

(ratana) of a righteous World Emperor

(cakkavatti: ‘He who owns the Wheel,’ cf. D. 26), and

symbolizes conquering progress and expanding

sovereignty. From that derives the figurative expression

dhamma-cakkaü pavatteti, ‘he sets rolling the Wheel of

the Law’ and the name of the Buddha’s first sermon,

Dhamma-cakkappavattana Sutta (s. dhamma-cakka).

Another figurative meaning of C. is ‘blessing’. There

are 4 such ‘auspicious wheels’ or ‘blessings’: living in a

suitable locality, company of good people, meritorious

acts done in the past, right inclinations (A. IV, 31).

Bhava-cakka, ‘wheel of existence’, or of life, is a

name for ‘dependent origination’ (s. pañiccasamuppàda).

See The Buddhist Wheel Symbol, by T. B. Karunaratne

(Wheel 137/138); The Wheel of Birth and Death, by

Bhikkhu Khantipalo (Wheel 147/149)

cakkh’ àyatana: ‘the base “visual organ” ’ (s. àyatana).

cakkhu: ‘eye’ s. àyatana. – The foll. 5 kinds of ‘eyes’ are

mentioned and explained in CNid. (PTS, p. 235; the

first 3 also in It. 52): 1. the physical eye (maüsa

– 81 –

cakkhu), 2. the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu; s. abhi¤¤à),

3. the eye of wisdom (pa¤¤à-cakkhu), 4 the eye of a

Buddha (Buddha-c.), 5. the eye of all-round knowledge

(samanta-c.; a frequent appellation of the Buddha).

cakkhu-dhàtu: ‘the element “visual organ” ’ (s. dhàtu).

cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa: ‘eye-consciousness’ (s. vi¤¤àõa).

cankers: s. àsava.

caraõa: s. vijjà-caraõa.

carita: ‘nature, character’. In Vis.M. III there are explained

six types of men: the greedy-natured (ràgacarita),

the hate-natured (dosa-carita), the stupid or

dull-natured (moha-carita), the faithful-natured

(saddhà-carita), the intelligent-natured (buddhi-carita),

the ruminating-natured (vitakka-carita). – (App.).

càritta- and vàritta-sãla: ‘morality consisting in

performance and morality consisting in avoidance,’

means “the performance of those moral rules which the

Blessed one has ordained to be followed, and the

avoidance of those things that the Blessed One has

rejected as not to be followed” (Vis.M. III). – (App.).

catu-dhàtu-vavatthàna: ‘analysis of the four

elements’; s. dhàtu-vavatthàna.

catu-mahàràjika-deva a class of heavenly beings of

the sensuous sphere; s. deva.

catu-pàrisuddhi-sãla: s. sãla.

– 82 –

catu-vokàra-bhava: ‘four-group existence’, is the existence

in the immaterial world (aråpa-loka; s. loka), since

only the four mental groups (feeling, perception, mental

formations, consciousness, s. khandha) are found

there, the corporeality group being absent. Cf. pa¤cavokàra-

bhava, eka-vokàra-bhava. (App.: vokàra).

cause: cf. paccaya (1). – For the five c. of existence,

s. pañicca-samuppàda (10).

cemetery: ascetic practice of living in a c.; s. dhutanga.

cemetery-meditations: s. sãvathikà.

cetanà: ‘volition’, will, is one of the seven mental

factors (cetasika, q.v.) inseparably bound up with all

consciousness, namely sensorial or mental impression

(phassa), feeling (vedanà), perception (sa¤¤à), volition

(cetanà), concentration (samàdhi), vitality (jãvita),

advertence (manasikàra). Cf. Tab. II, III.

With regard to karmical volition (i.e. wholesome or

unwholesome karma) it is said in A. VI, 13: “Volition is

action (karma), thus I say, O monks; for as soon as volition

arises, one does the action, be it by body, speech

or mind.” For details, s. pañicca-samuppàda (10), karma.

cetasika: ‘mental things, mental factors’, are those

mental concomitants which are bound up with the

simultaneously arising consciousness (citta = vi¤¤àõa)

and conditioned by its presence. Whereas in the Suttas

all phenomena of existence are summed up under the

aspect of 5 groups: corporeality, feeling, perception,

mental formations, consciousness (s. khandha), the

Abhidhamma as a rule treats them under the more

– 83 –

philosophical 3 aspects: consciousness, mental factors

and corporeality (citta, cetasika, råpa). Thus, of these

3 aspects, the mental factors (cetasika) comprise feeling,

perception and the 50 mental formations, altogether

52 mental concomitants. Of these, 25 are lofty

qualities (either karmically wholesome or neutral),

14 karmically unwholesome, while 13 are as such

karmically neutral, their karmical quality depending on

whether they are associated with wholesome, unwholesome

or neutral consciousness. For details s. Tab. II, III.

Cf. prec. (App.)

cetaso vinibandha: ‘mental bondages’, are 5 things

which hinder the mind from making right exertion,

namely: lust for sensuous objects, for the body, for

visible things, for eating and sleeping, and leading the

monk’s life for the sake of heavenly rebirth. For details,

s. A.V, 205; X, 14; D. 33; M. 16. Cf. foll.

cetokhila: ‘mental obduracies’, are 5 things which

stiffen and hinder the mind from making right exertion,

namely: doubt about the Master, about the Doctrine,

about the (holy) Brotherhood, about the training, and

anger against one’s fellow-monks. For details s. A.V,

206, X, 14; D. 33; M. 16. Cf. prec.

ceto-pariya-¤àõa: ‘penetrating knowledge of the mind

(of others)’, is one of the 6 higher powers (abhi¤¤à

3, q.v.).

ceto-vimutti: ‘deliverance of mind’. In the highest

sense it signifies the fruition of Arahatship (s. ariyapuggala),

and in particular, the concentration associated

with it. It is often linked with the ‘deliverance

– 84 –

through wisdom’ (pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.), e.g. in the ten

powers of a Perfect One (s. dasa-bala). See vimokkha I.

It is also called ‘unshakable deliverance of mind’

(akuppa-c.); further ‘boundless d. of m. (appamàõa-c.);

‘d. of m. from the conditions of existence, or signless

d. of m.’ (animittà-c.); ‘d. of m. from the appendages’

(àkinca¤¤a-c.), since that state of mind is free from the

3 bonds, conditions and appendants, i.e. from greed,

hatred and ignorance; and since it is void thereof, it is

called the ‘void deliverance of mind’ (su¤¤atà-c.)

In a more restricted sense, ‘boundless deliverance

of mind’ is a name for the 4 boundless states, i.e. lovingkindness,

compassion, altruistic joy and equanimity

(s. brahma-vihàra); ‘d. of m. from the appendages’

stands for the ‘sphere of nothingness’ (àki¤ca¤¤àyatana

s. jhàna 7); ‘d. of mind from the conditions of existence’,

for d. of mind due to non-attention to all conditions

of existence; ‘void d. of m’ for d. of m. due to contemplating

voidness of self. For further details, s. M. 43.

chaë-abhi¤¤à: the 6 ‘higher powers’; s. abhi¤¤à.

chaë-abhi¤¤o: an Arahat who is a ‘possessor of the

6 higher powers’ (s. abhi¤¤à).

chanda: intention, desire, will.

1. As an ethically neutral psychological term, in the

sense of ‘intention’, it is one of those general mental

factors (cetasika, q.v. Tab. II) taught in the Abhidhamma,

the moral quality of which is determined by

the character of the volition (cetanà, q.v.) associated

therewith. The Com. explains it as ‘a wish to do’ (kattu–

85 –

kamyatà-chanda). If intensified, it acts also as a

‘predominance condition’ (s. paccaya 3).

2. As an evil quality it has the meaning of ‘desire’,

and is frequently coupled with terms for ‘sensuality’,

‘greed’, etc., for instance: kàma-cchanda, ‘sensuous

desire’, one of the 5 hindrances (s. nãvaraõa); chandaràga,

‘lustful desire’ (s. kàma). It is one of the 4 wrong

paths (s. agati).

3. As a good quality it is a righteous will or zeal

(dhamma-chanda) and occurs, e.g. in the formula of the

4 right efforts (s. padhàna): “The monk rouses his will

(chandaü janeti)….” If intensified, it is one of the

4 roads to power (s. iddhipàda).

change, contemplation of: one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

chaos: cf. kappa.

character: On the 6 kinds of human character,

s. carita.

characteristics of existence, the. 3: ti-lakkhaõa (q.v.).

chaste life: brahma-cariya (q.v.).

chief-elements, the 4: mahà-bhåta (q.v.) –

dhàtu (q.v.).

cintà-maya-pa¤¤à: ‘Wisdom (or knowledge) based on

thinking’, s. pa¤¤à.

citta: ‘mind’, ‘consciousness’, ‘state of consciousness’, is

a synonym of mano (q.v.) and vi¤¤àõa (s. khandha and

– 86 –

Tab. 1). Dhs. divides all phenomena into consciousness

(citta), mental concomitants (cetasika, q.v.) and

corporeality (råpa).

In adhicitta, ‘higher mentality’, it signifies the concentrated,

quietened mind, and is one of the 3 trainings

(s. sikkhà). The concentration (or intensification) of

consciousness is one of the 4 roads to power

(s. iddhipàda).

citta-ja (citta-samuññhàna)-råpa: ‘mind-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

citta-kamma¤¤atà, °lahutà, °mudutà, °pagu¤¤atà,

°passaddhi, °ujukatà; s. Tab. II.

citta-kkhaõa: ‘consciousness-moment’, is the time

occupied by one single stage in the perceptual process

or cognitive series (cittavãthi; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca). This

moment again is subdivided into the genetic (uppàda),

static (ñhiti) and dissolving (bhanga) moment. One

such moment is said in the commentaries to be of

inconceivably short duration and to last not longer

than the billionth part of the time occupied by a flash

of lightning. However that may be, we ourselves know

from experience that it is possible within one single

second to dream of innumerable things and events. In

A. I, 10 it is said: “Nothing, O monks, do I know that

changes so rapidly as consciousness. Scarcely anything

may be found that could be compared with this so

rapidly changing consciousness.” (App. khaõa).

– 87 –

cittànupassanà: ‘contemplation of consciousness’, is

one of the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.)

citta-samuññhàna-råpa: ‘mind-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

citta-sankhàra: s. sankhàra.

citta-santàna: ‘consciousness-continuity’; s. santàna.

cittass’ekaggatà: ‘one-pointedness of mind’, is a

synonym of concentration, or samàdhi (q.v.)

citta-vipallàsa: ‘perversion of mind’; s. vipallàsa.

citta-visuddhi: ‘purification of mind’, is the 2nd of the

7 stages of purification (visuddhi, II,. q.v.).

citta-vãthi: ‘process of consciousness’; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

citt’ekaggatà = cittass’ekaggatà (q.v.).

clarity of consciousness: sampaja¤¤a (q.v.).

clinging, the 4 kinds of: upàdàna (q.v.).

cognitive series: s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

companionship: Influence of good and bad° =

samseva (q.v.).

compassion: karuõà; s. brahma-vihàra.

comprehension: clear c.: s. sampaja¤¤a. – c. in insight,

s. sammasana. – As an alternative tr. for full

understanding, s. pari¤¤à.

– 88 –

co-nascence: sahajàta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

conceit: màna (q.v.); further s. saüyojana.

concentration: samàdhi (q.v.) – right°, s. sacca (IV. 8),

magga (8). – wrong°, s. micchà-magga (8).

conception 1. thought-c°: cf. vitakka-vicàra.

conception 2. (in the mother’s womb): okkanti (q.v.).

conditions, the 24: paccaya (q.v.).

conditions of existence, deliverance from the: see

ceto-vimutti; vimokkha.

confidence: s. saddhà.

consciousness: vi¤¤àõa (s. khandha), citta (q.v.),

mano (q.v.) – Moment of°: citta-kkhana (q.v.).

Contemplation of°: cittànupassanà: s. satipaññhàna –

Corporeality produced by°: citta-ja-råpa, s. samutthàna

– Abodes or supports of°:

cf. vi¤¤àõatthiti (q.v.) Functions of°: vi¤¤àõakicca

(q.v.).

contemplation: s. anupassanà.

contentedness (with whatever robe, etc.) belongs to

the noble usages: ariya-vamsa (q.v.).

contentment: appicchatà, is one of the ascetic virtues.

Cf. A. X, 181-90.

contiguity: samanantara-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

– 89 –

continuity (of body, subconsciousness, consciousness

or groups of existence): santàna (q.v.).

control, effort of: s. padhàna.

conventional (expression or truth): s. desanà.

corporeality: produced through consciousness, karma,

etc.; s. samuññhàna. – Sensitive c.: pasàda-råpa. (q.v.).

corporeality and mind: s. nàma-råpa.

corporeality-group: råpa-kkhandha: s. khandha.

corporeality-perceptions: råpa-sa¤¤à: s. jhàna.

corruptions: s. upakkilesa.

cosmogony: cf. kappa.

counteractive karma: upapãëaka-kamma; s. karma.

counter-image (during concentration): s. nimitta,

kasiõa, samàdhi.

course of action (wholesome or unwholesome):

kammapatha (q.v.).

covetousness: abhijjhà (q.v.); further s. kamma-patha (1).

cowardice: s. agati.

craving: taõhà (q.v.), ràga (q.v.); further s. måla.

created, the: sankhata (q.v.).

cuti-citta: ‘death-consciousness’, lit. ‘departing

consciousness’, is one of the 14 functions of

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca q.v.).

– 90 –

cutåpapàta-¤àõa: the ‘knowledge of the vanishing

and reappearing’ (of beings) is identical with the divine

eye; s. abhi¤¤à.

cycle of existence: s. saüsarà, vañña.

– 91 –

D

dàna: ‘almsgiving’, liberality, offering. “He who gives

alms, bestows a fourfold blessing: he helps to long life,

good appearance, happiness and strength. Therefore

long life, good appearance, happiness and strength will

be his share, whether amongst heavenly beings or

amongst men” (A. IV, 57).

“Five blessings accrue to the giver of alms: the

affection of many, noble association, good reputation,

self-confidence, and heavenly rebirth” (see A. V, 34).

Seven further blessings are given in A. VII, 54.

Liberality, especially the offering of robes, food,

etc., to the monks, is highly praised in all Buddhist

countries of Southern Asia as a fundamental virtue and

as a means to suppress man’s inborn greed and egoism.

But, as in any other good or bad action, so also in

offering gifts, it is the noble intention and volition that

really counts as the action, not the mere outward deed.

Almsgiving or liberality (dàna), constitutes the first.

kind of meritorious activity, the two others being

morality (sãla, q.v.) and mental development

(bhàvanà); s. pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu. Liberality (càga)

forms one of the 10 recollections (anussati, q.v.) and

almsgiving one of the 10 perfections (s. pàramã).

dasa-(tathàgata-) bala: ‘the ten powers (of a Perfect

One); or, he who Possesses the 10 P.’, i.e. the Buddha.

About him it is said (e.g., M. 12.; A. X, 21):

– 92 –

“There, O monks, the Perfect One understands

according to reality the possible as possible, and the

impossible as impossible… the result of past, present

and future actions… the path leading to the welfare of

all… the world with its many different elements… the

different inclinations in beings… the lower and higher

faculties in beings… the defilement, purity and rising

with regard to the absorptions, deliverances, concentration

and attainments… remembering many former

rebirths… perceiving with the divine eye how beings

vanish and reappear again according to their actions

(karma)… gaining, through extinction of all taints,

possession of ‘deliverance of mind’ and ‘deliverance

through wisdom’….”

dasaka-kalàpa: s. råpa-kalàpa.

dasa-pàramã: s. pàramã.

dasa-pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu: s. pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu.

death: maraõa (q.v.) – Contemplation of°:

maranànussati (q.v.) – As divine messenger: devadåta

(q.v.).

death-consciousness: cuti-citta, is one of the

14 functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca, q.v.).

deathlessness: amata (q.v.).

death-proximate karma: maraõàsa¤¤à-kamma;

s. karma.

deciding function (of consciousness): s. vi¤¤àõakicca.

– 93 –

decline (in morality, wisdom, etc.): s. hàna-bhàgiyasãla.

– Liable to°, parihàna-dhamma (q.v.).

defilements: s. kilesa, upakkilesa. –10 d. of insight:

vipassanåpakkilesa, s. visuddhi VI. – Round of d.,

s. vañña (1).

deliverance: s. vimutti, vimokkha. – The 8 kinds of d.

(or liberation), s. vimokkha. – D. of mind, d. through

voidness, boundless d. etc., s. ceto-vimutti. – Desire

for d., s. visuddhi (VI, 6). – D. through wisdom; pa¤¤àvimutti

(q.v.). – 3 doors of d. (or gateways of

liberation) s. visuddhi (VI, 8).

deluded consciousness: s. Tab. I. 32, 33.

deluded-natured: moha-carita; s. carita.

delusion: s. moha, avijjà.

demons’ realm: asura-nikàya; s. apàya.

departed, the spirits of the: peta (q.v.).

dependent origination: pañicca samuppàda (q.v.).

derived corporeality: upàdà-råpa (q.v.); further

s. khandha (I. B.).

desanà: ‘exposition’ of the doctrine, may be either an

exposition true in the highest sense (paramatthadesanà);

or it may not be true in the highest, but only in

the conventional sense (vohàra-desanà). See

paramattha.

desire for deliverance: s. visuddhi (VI, 6).

– 94 –

desireless deliverance: s. vimokkha (1).

desirelessness, contemplation on: s. vipassanà (12).

destiny, evil views with fixed d.: niyata-micchàdiññhi

(q.v.). Men with fixed d.: niyata-puggala (q.v.).

See gati.

destruction: overcoming, or liberation from, evil

things through their d.; samuccheda-pahàna or

samuccheda-vimutti; s. pahàna.

destructive karma: upaghàtaka-kamma; s. karma.

detachment: viveka (q.v.).

determination: s. adhimokkha, adhiññhàna.

determining: votthapana (s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca).

determining the reality: s. vavatthàna.

deva (lit: the Radiant Ones; related to Lat. deus):

heavenly beings, deities, celestials, are beings who live

in happy worlds, and who, as a rule, are invisible to the

human eye. They are subject, however, just like all

human and other beings, to ever-repeated rebirth, old

age and death, and thus are not freed from the cycle of

existence and from misery. There are many classes of

heavenly beings.

I. The 6 classes of heavenly beings of the sensuous

sphere (kàmàvacara or kàma-loka; s. avacara loka), are

Càtumahàràjika-deva, Tàvatiüsa, Yàma, Tusita

(s. Bodhisatta), Nimmàna-rati, Paranimmita-vasavatti.

Cf. anussati. (6).

– 95 –

II. The heavenly beings of the fine-material sphere

(råpàvacara or råpaloka) are:

1. Brahma-pàrisajja, Brahma-purohita, Mahàbrahmàno

(s. brahma-kàyika-deva). Amongst these

3 classes will be reborn those with a weak, medium or

full experience of the 1st absorption (jhàna, q.v.).

2. Parittàbha, Appamàõàbha, âbhassara. Here will

be reborn those with experience of the 2nd absorption.

3. Paritta-subha, Appamàõa-subha, Subha-kiõõa (or

kiõha). Here will be reborn those with experience of

the 3rd absorption.

4. Vehapphala, Asa¤¤a-satta (q.v.), Suddhàvàsa

(q.v.; further s. Anàgàmi). Amongst the first 2 classes

will be reborn those with experience of the 4th

absorption, but amongst the 3rd class only

Anàgàmis (q.v.).

III. The 4 grades of heavenly beings of the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara or aråpa-loka) are: the

heavenly beings of the sphere of unbounded space

(àkàsàna¤càyatanåpaga-devà), of unbounded

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa¤càyatanåpaga-deva), of

nothingness (àki¤ca¤¤àyatanåpaga devà), of neitherperception-

nor- non-perception (nevasa¤¤ànàsa¤¤

àyatanåpaga-devà). Here will be reborn those

with experience of the 4 immaterial spheres

(aråpàyatana; s. jhàna 5-8).

See Gods and the Universe by Francis Story

(Wheel 180/181).

deva-dåta: ‘divine messengers’, is a symbolic name for

old age, disease and death, since these three things

– 96 –

remind man of his future and rouse him to earnest

striving. In A. III, 35, it is said:

“Did you, O man, never see in the world a man or a

woman eighty, ninety or a hundred years old, frail,

crooked as a gable-roof, bent down, resting on

crutches, with tottering steps, infirm, youth long since

fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair, or baldheaded,

wrinkled, with blotched limbs? And did it

never occur to you that you also are subject to old age,

that you also cannot escape it?

“Did you never see in the world a man or a woman,

who being sick, afflicted and grievously ill, and wallowing

in their own filth, was lifted up by some people, and

put down by others? And did it never occur to you that

you also are subject to disease, that you also cannot

escape it?

“Did you never see in the world the corpse of a

man or a woman, one or two or three days after death,

swollen up, blue-black in colour, and full of corruption?

And did it never occur to you that you also are

subject to death, that you also cannot escape it?” – See

M. 130.

devatànussati: ‘recollection of the heavenly beings’;

s. anussati.

development (mental): bhàvanà (q.v.). – Effort to

develop, s. padhàna. – Wisdom based on d. s. pa¤¤à. –

Gradual d. of the Eightfold Path in the ‘progress of the

disciple’ (q.v.).

deviation: (from morality and understanding):

vipatti (q.v.).

– 97 –

devotee: upàsaka (q.v.).

dhamma: lit. the ‘bearer’, constitution (or nature of a

thing), norm, law (jus), doctrine; justice, righteousness;

quality; thing, object of mind (s. àyatana) ‘phenomenon’.

In all these meanings the word ‘dhamma’ is to be

met with in the texts. The Com. to D. instances

4 applications of this term guõa (quality, virtue), desanà

(instruction), pariyatti (text), nijjãvatà (soullessness,

e.g. “all dhammà, phenomena, are impersonal,” etc.).

The Com. to Dhs. has hetu (condition) instead of

desanà. Thus, the analytical knowledge of the law

(s. pañisambhidà) is explained in Vis.M. XIV. and in

Vibh. as hetumhi-¤àõa, knowledge of the conditions.

The Dhamma, as the liberating law discovered and

proclaimed by the Buddha, is summed up in the

4 Noble Truths (s. sacca). It forms one of the 3 Gems

(ti-ratana, q.v.) and one of the 10 recollections

(anussati q.v.).

Dhamma, as object of mind (dhammàyatana,

s. àyatana) may be anything past, present or future,

corporeal or mental, conditioned or not

(cf. sankhàra, 4), real or imaginary.

dhamma-cakka: The ‘Wheel (realm) of the Law’, is a

name for the doctrine ‘set rolling’ (established) by the

Buddha, i.e. the 4 Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.).

“The Perfect One, O monks, the Holy One, fully

Enlightened One, in the Deer Park at Isipatana near

– 98 –

Benares, has set rolling (established) the unsurpassed

Wheel (realm) of the Law” (M. 141). Cf. cakka.

dhamma-desanà: ‘exposition of the Doctrine (law)’;

s. desanà.

dhamma-dhàtu: mind-object-element (s. dhàtu).

dhammànupassanà: ‘contemplation of the mindobjects’

is the last of the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.)

dhammànusàrã: the ‘dhamma-devotee’, is one of the

7 noble disciples (ariya-puggala, q.v.).

dhammànussati: ‘recollection of the Law’, is one of

the 10 recollections (anussati, q.v.).

dhamma-pañisambhidà: the ‘analytical knowledge of

the law, is one of the 4 kinds of analytical knowledge

(pañisambhidà, q.v.).

dhamma-ññhiti-¤àõa: ‘knowledge of the fixity of law,

is a name for that ‘insight which is leading up’ to the

entrance into one of the 4 supermundane paths

(vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà, q.v.). In the Susima Sutta

(S. XII, 70) this (ascending) insight is called the

‘knowledge of the fixity of the law’, namely: “At first,

Susima, there exists the knowledge of the fixity of the

law, and later the knowledge of Nibbàna.” (See

Vis.M. XXI.)

dhamma-vicaya-sambojjhanga: ‘investigation of the

law as factor of enlightenment’, is one of the 7 factors

of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.).

– 99 –

dhammàyatana: ‘mind-object as base’ (àyatana, q.v.).

dhana: ‘treasures’, a term for the following 7 qualities:

faith, morality, moral shame, moral dread, learning,

liberality and wisdom. Cf. A. VII, 5, 6.

See ‘Treasures of the Noble’, by Soma Thera (Bodhi

Leaves B. 27, BPS).

dhàtu: ‘elements’, are the ultimate constituents of a

whole.

(I) The 4 physical elements (dhàtu or mahà-bhåta),

popularly called earth, water, fire and wind, are to be

understood as the primary qualities of matter. They are

named in Pàli: pañhavã-dhàtu, àpo-dhàtu, tejo-dhàtu, and

vàyo-dhàtu. In Vis.M. XI, 2 the four elements are

defined thus: “Whatever is characterized by hardness

(thaddha-lakkkhaõa) is the earth or solid-element; by

cohesion (àbandhana) or fluidity, the water-element;

by heating (paripàcana), the fire or heat-element; by

strengthening or supporting (vitthambhana), the wind

or motion-element. All four are present in every

material object, though in varying degrees of strength.

If, for instance, the earth element predominates, the

material object is called ‘solid’, etc. – For the analysis of

the 4 elements, s. dhàtu-vavatthàna.

(II) The 18 physical and mental elements that

constitute the conditions or foundations of the process

of perception, are:

1. visual organ (eye) 11. eye-consciousness

2. auditory organ (ear) 12. ear-consciousness

3. olfactory organ (nose) 13. nose-consciousness

4. gustatory organ (tongue) 14. tongueconsciousness

– 100 –

5. tactile organ (body) 15. body-consciousness

6. visible object 16. mind-element

(mano-dhàtu)

7. sound or audible object 17. mind-object

8. odour or olfactive object (dhamma-dhàtu)

9. gustative object 18. mind-consciousness

10. body-impression element (mano-vi¤¤àõa-dhàtu)

1-10 are physical; 11-16 and 18 are mental; 17

may be either physical or mental. – 16 performs the

function of advertence (àvajjana) towards the object at

the inception of a process of sensuous consciousness; it

further performs the function of receiving

(sampañicchana) the sensuous object. 18 performs, e.g.,

the function of investigation (santãraõa), determining

(votthapana) and registering (tadàrammaõa) – (for its

other functions, s. Table I). For the 14 functions of

consciousness, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

Cf. M. 115; S. XIV and especially Vibh. II

(Guide p. 28f), Vis.M. XV, 17ff.

Of the many further groupings of elements

(enumerated in M. 115), the best known is that of the

3 world-elements: the sensuous world (kàma-dhàtu),

the fine-material world (råpa-dhàtu), the immaterial

world (aråpa-dhàtu); further the sixfold group: the

solid, liquid, heat, motion, space, consciousness

(pañhavã, àpo, tejo, vàyo, àkàsa, vi¤¤àõa; s. above I),

described in M. 140; see also M. 112.

dhàtu-vavatthàna: ‘analysis (or determining) of the

4 elements’, is described in Vis.M. XI, 2, as the last of

the 40 mental exercises (s. bhàvanà). In a condensed

form this exercise is handed down in D. 22 and M. 10

(s. satipaññhàna), but in detail explained in M. 28,

– 101 –

62, 140. The simile of the butcher in M. 10 (“Just,

O monks, as a skilled butcher or butcher’s apprentice,

after having slaughtered a cow and divided it into

separate portions, should sit down at the junction of

four highroads; just so does the disciple contemplate

this body with regard to the elements”) is thus explained

in Vis.M. XI.: “To the butcher, who rears the cow,

brings it to the slaughter-house, ties it, puts it there,

slaughters it, or looks at the slaughtered and dead cow,

the idea ‘cow’ does not disappear as long as he has not

yet cut the body open and taken it to pieces. As soon,

however, as he sits down, after having cut it open and

taken it to pieces, the idea ‘cow’ disappears to him, and

the idea ‘meat’ arises. And he does not think: ‘A cow do

I sell, or ‘A cow do they buy.’ Just so, when the monk

formerly was still an ignorant worldling, layman or a

homeless one, the ideas ‘living being’ or ‘man’ or

‘individual’ had not yet disappeared as long as he had

not taken this body, whatever position or direction it

had, to pieces and analysed it piece by piece. As soon,

however, as he analysed this body into its elements, the

idea ‘living being’ disappeared to him, and his mind

became established in the contemplation of the

elements.” – (App.).

dhutanga: (lit. ‘means of shaking off (the defilements)’);

‘means of purification’, ascetic or austere

practices. These are strict observances recommended

by the Buddha to monks as a help to cultivate contentedness,

renunciation, energy and the like. One or more

of them may be observed for a shorter or longer period

of time.

– 102 –

“The monk training himself in morality should take

upon himself the means of purification, in order to gain

those virtues through which the purity of morality will

become accomplished, to wit: fewness of needs, contentedness,

austerity, detachment, energy, moderation,

etc.” (Vis.M. II).

Vis.M. II describes 13 dhutangas, consisting in the

vows of

1. wearing patched-up robes: paüsukålik’anga,

2. wearing only three robes: tecãvarik’anga,

3. going for alms: piõóapàtik’anga,

4. not omitting any house whilst going for alms:

sapadànikanga,

5. eating at one sitting: ekàsanik’anga,

6. eating only from the alms-bowl:

pattapiõóik’anga,

7. refusing all further food: khalu-pacchàbhattik’anga,

8. living in the forest: àra¤¤ik’anga,

9. living under a tree: rukkha-målik’anga,

10. living in the open air: abbhokàsik’anga,

11. living in a cemetery: susànik’anga,

12. being satisfied with whatever dwelling: yathàsanthatik’anga,

13. sleeping in the sitting position (and never

lying down): nesajjik’anga.

These 13 exercises are all, without exception,

mentioned in the old sutta texts (e.g. M. 5, 113; A.V.,

181-90), but never together in one and the same place.

“Without doubt, O monks, it is a great advantage to

live in the forest as a hermit, to collect one’s alms, to

– 103 –

make one’s robes from picked-up rags, to be satisfied

with three robes” (A.I, 30).

The vow, e.g. of No. 1, is taken in the words:

“I reject robes offered to me by householders,” or

“I take upon myself the vow of wearing only robes

made from picked-up rags.” Some of the exercises may

also be observed by the lay-adherent.

Here it may be mentioned that each newly ordained

monk, immediately after his being admitted to the

Order, is advised to be satisfied with whatever robes,

alms-food, dwelling and medicine he gets: “The life of

the monks depends on the collected alms as food… on

the root of a tree as dwelling… on robes made from

patched-up rags… on stale cow’s urine as medicine.

May you train yourself therein all your life.”

Since the moral quality of any action depends entirely

upon the accompanying intention and volition,

this is also the case with these ascetic practices, as is

expressly stated in Vis.M. Thus the mere external

performance is not the real exercise, as it is said

(Pug. 275-84): “Some one might be going for alms; etc.

out of stupidity and foolishness – or with evil intention

and filled with desires – or out of insanity and mental

derangement – or because such practice had been

praised by the Noble Ones….” These exercises are,

however properly observed “if they are taken up only

for the sake of frugality, of contentedness, of

purity, etc.” (App.)

On dhutanga practice in modern Thailand, see With

Robes and Bowl, by Bhikkhu Khantipalo (Wheel 82/83).

– 104 –

dibba-cakkhu: the ‘divine eye’, is one of the 6 higher

powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.), and one of the three kinds of

knowledge (tevijjà, q.v.).

dibba-loka: heavenly world; s. deva.

dibba-sota: the ‘divine ear’, is one of the 6 higher

powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.).

dibba-vihàra: s. vihàra.

disappearance: vigata-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

disciplinary code: s. pàtimokkha.

discursive thinking: vicàra; s. vitakka-vicàra.

disease: one of the ‘divine messengers’ (devadåta,

q.v.).

disinterestedness: (regarding the whole world):

s. sabbaloke anabhirati-sa¤¤à.

dispensation: s. sàsana.

dissociation: vippayutta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

dissolution, contemplation of: khayànupassanà, is one

of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

diññha-dhamma-vedanãya-kamma: karma bearing

fruit in this present life; s. karma.

diññhi (lit. ‘sight’; √ dis, to see): view, belief, speculative

opinion, insight. If not qualified by sammà, ‘right’, it

– 105 –

mostly refers to wrong and evil view or opinion, and

only in a few instances to right view, understanding or

insight (e.g. diññhi-ppatta, q.v.; diññhi-visuddhi, purification

of insight; diññhi-sampanna, possessed of insight).

Wrong or evil views (diññhi or micchà-diññhi) are

declared as utterly rejectable for being a source of

wrong and evil aspirations and conduct, and liable at

times to lead man to the deepest abysses of depravity,

as it is said in A. I, 22:

“No other thing than evil views do I know,

O monks, whereby to such an extent the unwholesome

things not yet arisen arise, and the unwholesome things

already arisen are brought to growth and fullness. No

other thing than evil views do I know, whereby to such

an extent the wholesome things not yet arisen are

hindered in their arising, and the wholesome things

already arisen disappear. No other thing than evil views

do I know, whereby to such an extent human beings at

the dissolution of the body, at death, are passing to a

way of suffering, into a world of woe, into hell.”

Further in A. I, 23: “Whatever a man filled with evil

views performs or undertakes, or whatever he possesses

of will, aspiration, longing and tendencies, all these

things lead him to an undesirable, unpleasant and

disagreeable state, to woe and suffering.”

From the Abhidhamma (Dhs) it may be inferred

that evil views, whenever they arise, are associated with

greed (s. Tab. I. 22, 23, 26, 27).

Numerous speculative opinions and theories, which

at all times have influenced and still are influencing

mankind, are quoted in the sutta-texts. Amongst them,

– 106 –

however, the wrong view which everywhere, and at all

times, has most misled and deluded mankind is the

personality-belief, the ego-illusion. This personalitybelief

(sakkàya-diññhi), or ego-illusion (atta-diññhi), is of

2 kinds: eternity-belief and annihilation-belief.

Eternity-belief (sassata-diññhi) is the belief in the

existence of a persisting ego-entity, soul or personality,

existing independently of those physical and mental

processes that constitute life and continuing even after

death.

Annihilation-belief (uccheda-diññhi), on the other

hand, is the belief in the existence of an ego-entity or

personality as being more or less identical with those

physical and mental processes, and which therefore, at

the dissolution at death, will come to be annihilated. –

For the 20 kinds of personality-belief, see sakkàyadiññhi.

Now, the Buddha neither teaches a personality

which will continue after death, nor does he teach a

personality which will be annihilated at death, but he

shows us that ‘personality’, ‘ego’, ‘individual’, ‘man’, etc.,

are nothing but mere conventional designations

(vohàra-vacana) and that in the ultimate sense

(s. paramattha-sacca) there is only this self-consuming

process of physical and mental phenomena which

continually arise and again disappear immediately. –

For further details, s. anattà, khandha,

pañiccasamuppàda.

“The Perfect One is free from any theory

(diññhigata), for the Perfect One has seen what corporeality

is, and how it arises and passes away. He has

– 107 –

seen what feeling… perception… mental formations…

consciousness are, and how they arise and pass away.

Therefore I say that the Perfect One has won complete

deliverance through the extinction, fading away, disappearance,

rejection and casting out of all imaginings

and conjectures, of all inclination to the ‘vain-glory of ‘I’

and ‘mine’.” (M. 72).

The rejection of speculative views and theories is a

prominent feature in a chapter of the Sutta-Nipàta, the

Atthaka-Vagga.

The so-called ‘evil views with fixed destiny’ (niyatamicchàdiññhi)

constituting the last of the 10 unwholesome

courses of action (kammapatha, q.v.), are the

following three: (1) the fatalistic ‘view of the uncausedness’

of existence (ahetukadiññhi), (2) the ‘view of the

inefficacy of action’ (akiriyadiññhi), (3) nihilism

(natthikadiññhi).

(1) was taught by Makkhali-Gosàla, a contemporary

of the Buddha who denied every cause for the

corruptness and purity of beings, and asserted that

everything is minutely predestined by fate.

(2) was taught by Påraõa-Kassapa, another

contemporary of the Buddha who denied every

karmical effect of good and bad actions: “To him who

kills, steals, robs, etc., nothing bad will happen. For

generosity, self-restraint and truthfulness, etc. no

reward is to be expected.”

(3) was taught by Ajita-Kesakambali, a third contemporary

of the Buddha who asserted that any belief

– 108 –

in good action and its reward is a mere delusion, that

after death no further life would follow, that man at

death would become dissolved into the elements, etc.

For further details about these 3 views, s. D. 2, M. 60;

commentarial exposition in Wheel 98/99, p. 23.

Frequently mentioned are also the 10 antinomies

(antagàhikà micchà-diññhi): ‘Finite is the world’ or

‘infinite is the world’… ‘body and soul are identical’ or

‘body and soul are different’ (e.g. M. 63).

In the Brahmàjala Sutta.(D.1), 62 false views are

classified and described, comprising all conceivable

wrong views and speculations about man and world.

See The All-Embracing Net of Views (Brahmàjala Sutta),

tr. with Com. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS).

Further s. D. 15, 23, 24, 28; M. 11, 12, 25, 60, 63, 72,

76, 101, 102, 110; A. II, 16; X, 93; S. XXI, XXIV;

Pts.M. Ditthikathà,. etc.

Wrong views (diññhi) are one of the proclivities

(s. anusaya), cankers (s. àsava), clingings (s. upàdàna),

one of the three modes of perversions (s. vipallàsa).

Unwholesome consciousness (akusala citta), rooted in

greed, may be either with or without wrong views

(diññhigata-sampayutta or vippayutta); s. Dhs.; Tab I.

On right view (sammà-diññhi), s. magga and M. 9

(Trans. with Com. in ‘R. Und.’).

diññhi-nissita-sãla: ‘morality based on wrong views’;

s. nissaya.

– 109 –

diññhi-ppatta: the ‘vision attainer’, is one of the

7 Noble Persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.).

diññhi-vipallàsa: ‘perversion of views’; s. vipallàsa.

diññhi-visuddhi: ‘purification of view’ is the 3rd of the

7 stages of purification (visuddhi III, q.v.).

diññh’upàdàna: ‘clinging to views’, is one of the 4 kinds

of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

divine abode: s. vihàra.

divine ear and eye: s. abhi¤¤à.

divine messengers, the 3: deva-dåta (q.v.).

doctrine of the Buddha: s. dhamma, sàsana.

dogmatic articles, the 3: titthàyatana (q.v.).

domanassa: lit. ‘sad-mindedness’, grief, i.e. mentally

painful feeling (cetasika-vedanà), is one of the

5 feelings (vedanà, q.v.) and one of the 22 faculties

(indriya, q.v.). According to the Abhidhamma, grief is

always associated with antipathy and grudge, and

therefore karmically unwholesome (akusala, q.v.)

Cf. Tab. I. 30, 31.

domanassupavicàra: ‘indulging in grief’;

s. manopavicàra.

doors of deliverance, the 3: vimokkha-dvàra;

s. vimokkha I; visuddhi VI, 8.

dosa: ‘hatred’, anger, is one of the 3 unwholesome,

roots (måla, q.v.). – d. citta: hate consciousness;

s. Tab. I (30, 31).

– 110 –

dosa-carita: ‘angry-or hate-natured’; s. carita.

doubt, skeptical: vicikicchà (q.v.), kankhà (q.v.).

dread, moral: ottappa s. hiri-ottappa.

drinking: On the evil effects of drinking intoxicants,

s. suràmeraya, etc.

dry-visioned: s. sukkha-vipassaka.

duccarita: ‘evil conduct’, is threefold: in deeds, words

and thoughts. See kammapatha (I).

duggati: ‘woeful course’ (of existence); s. gati.

dukkha: (1) ‘pain’, painful feeling, which may be

bodily and mental (s. vedanà).

(2) ‘Suffering’, ‘ill’. As the first of the Four Noble

Truths (s. sacca) and the second of the three characteristics

of existence (s. ti-lakkhaõa), the term dukkha is

not limited to painful experience as under (1), but refers

to the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity

of all conditioned phenomena which, on

account of their impermanence, are all liable to suffering,

and this includes also pleasurable experience.

Hence ‘unsatisfactoriness’ or ‘liability to suffering’

would be more adequate renderings, if not for stylistic

reasons. Hence the first truth does not deny the existence

of pleasurable experience, as is sometimes wrongly

assumed. This is illustrated by the following texts:

“Seeking satisfaction in the world, monks, I had

pursued my way. That satisfaction in the world I found.

In so far as satisfaction existed in the world, I have well

– 111 –

perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for misery in the

world, monks, I had pursued my way. That misery in

the world I found. In so far as misery existed in the

world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for

the escape from the world, monks, I had pursued my

way. That escape from the world I found. In so far as an

escape from the world existed, I have well perceived it

by wisdom” (A. 111, 101).

“If there were no satisfaction to be found in the

world, beings would not be attached to the world…. If

there were no misery to be found in the world, beings

would not be repelled by the world…. If there were no

escape from the world, beings could not escape therefrom”

(A. 111, 102).

See dukkhatà. For texts on the Truth of Suffering,

see W. of B. and ‘Path’.

See The Three Basic Facts of Existence, II. Suffering

(Wheel 191/193).

dukkhànupassanà: s. vipassanà.

dukkhatà (abstr. noun fr. dukkha): ‘the state of

suffering’, painfulness, unpleasantness, the unsatisfactoriness

of existence. “There are three kinds of

suffering: (1) suffering as pain (dukkha-dukkhatà),

(2) the suffering inherent in the formations (sankhàradukkhatà),

(3) the suffering in change (vipariõàmadukkhatà)”

(S. XLV, 165; D. 33).

(1) is the bodily or mental feeling of pain as actually

felt. (2) refers to the oppressive nature of all formations

of existence (i.e. all conditioned phenomena),

– 112 –

due to their continual arising and passing away; this

includes also experiences associated with neutral feeling.

(3) refers to bodily and mental pleasant feelings,

“because they are the cause for the arising of pain when

they change” (Vis.M. XIV, 34f).

dukkha-pañipadà: ‘painful progress’; s. pañipadà.

dvi-hetuka-pañisandhi: s. pañisandhi.

dwellings: Suitable d. for monks; s. senàsana. Satisfied

with whatever d.; s. dhutanga.

– 113 –

E

earnestness: appamàda (q.v.).

earth-element: s. dhàtu (I).

eating, knowing the measure in: bhojane

matta¤¤utà (q.v.).

effort, the 4 right e.: samma-ppadhàna; s. padhàna.

Right e. s. sacca (IV 6), magga (6). – 5 elements of e.:

padhàniyanga (q.v.).

ego-entity: attà (q.v.).

ego-belief: s. diññhi, sakkàya-diññhi, vipallàsa.

ego-idea, ego-perception: s. vipallàsa.

egolessness: anattà (q.v.).

eightfold path: s. magga.

eka-bãjã: ‘germinating only once more’, is the name for

one of the 3 kinds of Stream-winners: s. Sotàpanna.

ekàsanik’anga: the exercise of eating at one sitting, is

one of the ascetic practices; s. dhutanga.

eka-vokàra-bhava: one-group existence, is the existence

of the unconscious beings (asa¤¤a-satta, q.v.) as

they possess only the corporeality-group. Cf. catuvokàra-

bhava, pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava.

– 114 –

elasticity (of corporeality, mental factors or consciousness):

mudutà; s. khandha (Corporeality I.B.) and

Tab. II.

elders, the teaching of the: Theravàda (q.v.).

elements: dhàtu (q.v.). – Analysis of the 4 e.: dhàtuvavatthàna

(q.v.).

emotion: 8 sources of e.: saüvega-vatthu (q.v.). The

4 places rousing emotion; saüvejanãya-ññhàna (q.v.).

emptiness: su¤¤atà (q.v.). – Contemplation of e.:

su¤¤atànupassanà. – For emptiness of self, pertaining to

the 4 truths, s. sacca.

ends: ‘attaining two ends simultaneously’;

sama-sãsã (q.v.).

energy: viriya (q.v.); further s. bojjhanga, bala, pàramã.

enlightened one, the: Buddha; s. sammà-sambuddha.

enlightenment: bodhi (q.v.). – The 7 elements of e.:

bojjhanga (q.v.). – A being destined for e.:

Bodhisatta (q.v.).

enthusiasm: pãti (q.v.).

envy: issà (q.v.).

equality-conceit: s. màna.

equanimity: upekkhà (q.v.) = tatra-majjhattatà (q.v.).

– Knowledge consisting in e. with regard to all formations,

s. visuddhi (VI, 8). – Indulging in e., s. manopavicàra.

– 115 –

equilibrium of mental faculties: indriyasamatta

(q.v.).

escape: nissaraõa (s. pahàna).

eternity: cf. kappa.

eternity-belief: sassata-diññhi; s. diññhi.

exertion: see padhàna, viriya, magga (6). – Reaching

Nibbàna with or without e.; s. Anàgàmi.

existence: bhava (q.v.) – The 5 groups of e.:

khandha (q.v.) – The 4 substrata of e.: upadhi (q.v.). –

Courses of e.: gati (q.v.). – Wheel of e.: saüsàra (q.v.).

– Craving for e.: bhava-taõhà; s. taõhà; –

The 3 characteristics of e.: ti-lakkhaõa (q.v.).

expression (bodily and verbal): s. vi¤¤atti.

extinction: s. nirodha; – of craving: taõhakkhaya (q.v.).

extremes: the two e. and the middle path; s. majjhimapañipadà.

eye: 5 kinds, s. cakkhu. – Visual organ, s. àyatana.

eye-consciousness: cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa; s. dhàtu,

khandha.

eye-organ: s. àyatana.

– 116 –

F

factors, mental: s. cetasika. – F. of absorption,

s. jhàna – F. of enlightenment, s. bojjhanga.

faculties: indriya (q.v.); see also paccaya 16.

fading away: s. viràga.

faith: saddhà (q.v.).

faith-devotee and faith-liberated one:

s. ariyapuggala (B).

faithful-natured: saddhà-carita; s. carita.

fatalism: s. diññhi.

favour, 4 ways of showing sangaha-vatthu. (q.v.).

feeling: vedanà (q.v.); further s. khandha. –

Contemplation of f.: vedanànupassanà; s. satipaññhàna.

femininity: s. bhàva, indriya.

fetters: The 10 f. binding to existence; s. saüyojana.

few wishes: s. appicchatà.

fine-material sphere or world: s. avacara, loka.

Absorptions of the: råpa-jjhàna; s. jhàna.

fire-element: s. dhàtu (I).

– 117 –

fivefold sense-door, Advertence to the:

pa¤cadvàràvajjana; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

five-group existence: pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava (q.v.).

fixed destiny: s. niyata-micchà-diññhi, niyata-puggala.

fixity: s. niyama, tathatà, dhamma-ññhiti-¤àõa.

floods, the 4: ogha, are identical with the 4 cankers

(àsava, q.v.).

food, material: is one of the 4 nutriments (àhàra, q.v.).

Food-produced corporeality, s. samuññhàna. – Refusing

all further f., s. dhutanga. – Loathsomeness of f. s. àhàre

pañikkåla-sa¤¤à.

foolish babble: sampha-ppalàpa; s. karma,

kammapatha (I); cf. tiracchàna-kathà.

forbearance: khanti (q.v.).

forest-dweller, the ascetic practice for the: s. dhutanga.

formation: sankhàra (q.v.).

foundation: nissaya, one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.). Wrong f. of morality, s. nissaya. – f. of

sympathy: sangaha-vatthu (q.v.) – f.-forming absorptions:

pàdaka-jjhàna (q.v.); – f. of an Arahat’s mentality:

s. adhiññhàna.

foundations of mindfulness, the 4:

satipaññhàna (q.v.).

four-group existence: catu-vokàra-bhava (q.v.).

– 118 –

freedom of will, problem of the:

cf. pañiccasamuppàda (X).

friend, noble: kalyàõa-mitta (q.v.).

frivolous talk: cf. tiracchàna-kathà, kamma-patha

(I, 7), karma.

fruition (result of supermundane path): phala;

s. ariyapuggala (A).

fruits of monk-life: sàma¤¤a-phala (q.v.)

full comprehension: pari¤¤à (q.v.).

functional consciousness, or consciousness

functioning independently of karma: kiriya-citta (q.v.);

see vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

functions of consciousness: vi¤¤àõa-kicca (q.v.).

– 119 –

G

gantha: ‘ties’. “There are 4 ties: the bodily tie

(kàyagantha) of covetousness (abhijjhà), of ill-will

(vyàpàda), of clinging to rule and ritual (sãlabbataparàmàsa),

of dogmatical fanaticism (idamsaccàbhinivesa)”

(D. 33). – “These things are ties, since

they tie this mental and material body”

(Vis.M. XXII, 54).

garuka-kamma: weighty karma; s. karma.

gati (lit. ‘going’): ‘course of existence’, destiny, destination.

“There are 5 courses of existence: hell, animal

kingdom, ghost realm, human world, heavenly world”

(D. 33; A. XI, 68). Of these, the first 3 count as woeful

courses (duggati, s. apàya), the latter 2 as happy

courses (sugati).

gems, the 3: ti-ratana (q.v.).

generation, the 4 modes of: yoni (q.v.).

germinating once more: eka-bãjã, is the name of one

of the 3 kinds of Sotàpanna (q.v.).

ghosts: cf. peta, yakkha; s. loka.

giving: dàna (q.v.).

gladness: somanassa (q.v.). – Indulging in g.,

s. manopavicàra.

– 120 –

gnosis: s. indriya (21).

gotrabhå: lit. ‘who has entered the lineage (of the

Noble Ones)’, i.e. the Matured One.

I. ‘Maturity-Moment’ (gotrabhå-citta) is the last of

the 4 impulsive moments (javana, q.v.; cf. vi¤¤àõakicca)

immediately preceding the entering into an

absorption (jhàna, q.v.) or into one of the supermundane

paths (s. ariya-puggala, A.). Cf. visuddhi VII.

II. The ‘Matured One’. “He who is endowed with

those things, immediately upon which follows the

entrance into the noble path (ariya-magga), this person

is called a ‘Matured One’.” (Pug. 10). In the Com. to

this passage it is said: “He who through perceiving

Nibbàna, leaves behind the whole multitude of worldlings

(puthujjana, q.v.), the family of worldlings, the

circle of worldlings, the designation of a worldling and

enters into the multitude of the Noble Ones, the family

of the Noble Ones, the circle of the Noble Ones, and

obtains the designation of a Noble One, such a being is

called a Matured One.” By this state of consciousness is

meant the lightning-like transitional stage between the

state of a worldling and that of a Sotàpanna; s. ariyapuggala.

– Gotrabhå is mentioned in this sense, i.e. as

9th ariyapuggala (q.v.), in A. IX, 10; X, 16.

gotrabhå-¤àõa: ‘Maturity-knowledge’; s. prec. and

visuddhi (VII)

gradual instruction: ànupubbãkathà (q.v.).

grasping: cf. paràmàsa, upàdàna.

– 121 –

great man, the 8 thoughts of a: mahàpurisavitakka

(q.v.).

greed: lobha (q.v.).

greedy consciousness: s. Tab, I, III. (22-29).

greedy-natured: ràga-carita; s. carita.

grief: domanassa (q.v.) – Indulging in g.

s. manopavicàra.

groups: of existence, s. khandha; corporeal groups,

s. råpa-kalàpa; corporeality-group, s. råpa-kàya; mindgroup,

s. nàma-kàya.

growth, bodily: råpassa upacaya: s. khandha I.

grudge: s. pañigha.

gustatory organ: s. àyatana.

– 122 –

H

habitual karma: bahula-kamma: s. karma.

hadaya-vatthu: ‘heart as physical base’ of mental life.

The heart, according to the commentaries as well as to

the general Buddhist tradition, forms the physical base

(vatthu) of consciousness In the canonical texts, however,

even in the Abhidhamma Piñaka, no such base is

ever localized, a fact which seems to have first been

discovered by Shwe Zan Aung (Compendium of

Philosophy, pp. 277ff.). In the Paññh. we find repeatedly

only the passage: “That material thing based on which

mind-element and mind-consciousness element

function” (yaü råpaü nissàya manodhàtu ca manovi¤¤

àõa-dhàtu ca vattanti, taü råpaü).

hàna-bhàgiya-sãla, h.-b.–samàdhi, h.-b.–pa¤¤à:

morality, concentration or wisdom connected with

decline. The other three stages are: ñhiti-bhàgiyasãla,

etc. morality, etc. connected with a standstill;

visesa-bhàgiya sãla, etc.: morality, etc. connected with

progress; nibbedha-bhàgiya sãla, etc.: morality, etc.

connected with penetration. Cf. A. IV, 179; VI. X, 71.

“ ‘Decline’ (hàna) is to be understood with regard to

the arising of opposing qualities, ‘standstill’ ( ñhiti) with

regard to the standstill of the corresponding

attentiveness, ‘progress’ (visesa) with regard to higher

excellency, ‘penetration’ (nibbedha) with regard to the

arising of perception and reflection connected with the

– 123 –

turning away (from existence)” (Vis.M. III).

Cf. vodàna (2).

happiness, feeling of h.: s. sukha. – The idea of h.

(of the world), s. vipallàsa.

happy courses of existence: s. gati.

harmlessness: s. avihiüsà.

hasituppàda-citta: lit. ‘consciousness producing mirth’

(smile), is found in the Abhidhammattha Sangaha as a

name for the joyful mind-consciousness element

(manovi¤¤àõa-dhàtu, Tab. I. 72) arising as functional

consciousness independent of karma (kiriya-citta), only

in the Arahat. – (App.).

hate and hatelessness: (dosa, adosa) are two of the

6 karmical roots (måla, q.v.) or root-conditions (hetu;

paccaya 1).

hate-rooted consciousness: s. Tab. I. (30, 31).

hate-natured: dosa-carita; s. carita.

health-infatuation: s. mada.

hearer (disciple): sàvaka (q.v.).

heat-element: tejo-dhàtu; s. dhàtu.

hell: niraya (q.v.).

hetu: ‘cause’, condition, reason; (Abhidhamma) rootcondition.

In sutta usage it is almost synonymous with

paccaya, ‘condition’, and often occurs together with it

– 124 –

(‘What is the cause, what is the condition’, ko hetu ko

paccayo).

In Abhidhamma, it denotes the wholesome and

unwholesome roots (måla, q.v.). In that sense, as ‘rootcondition’

(hetu-paccaya; s. paccaya), it is the first of the

24 conditions given in the introduction to the Paññhàna

(s. Guide, p. 117). The Dhs (1052-1082) and Paññhàna

(Duka-paññh; Guide, p. 144) have sections on roots

(hetu). – The term is also used (a) for the classification

of consciousness, as sa-hetuka and a-hetuka, with and

without concomitant root-conditions; (b) for a division

of rebirth consciousness into ahetuka, dvihetuka and

tihetuka, without, with 2, or with 3 root-conditions

(s. pañisandhi).

Ahetuka-diññhi, the false view of the uncausedness

of existence; s. diññhi.

higher wisdom: clear insight based on h. w.:

s. vipassanà. Training in H. W., s. sikkhà.

highest knowledge: s. a¤¤à.

hindrances, the 5: nãvaraõa (q.v.).

hiri-ottappa: ‘moral shame and moral dread’, are

associated with all karmically wholesome consciousness

(s. Tab. II).

“To be ashamed of what one ought to be ashamed

of, to be ashamed of performing evil and unwholesome

things: this is called moral shame. To be in dread of

what one ought to be in dread of, to be in dread of

– 125 –

performing evil and unwholesome things: this is called

moral dread” (Pug, 79, 80).

“Two lucid things, O monks, protect the world:

moral shame and moral dread. If these two things were

not to protect the world, then one would respect

neither one’s mother, nor one’s mother’s sister, nor

one’s brother’s wife, nor one’s teacher’s wife….”

(A. II, 7). Cf. ahirika. See Atthasàlini Tr. I. pp. 164ff.

homelessness, going into pabbajjà (q.v.). Cf. Progress

of the disciple.

human world: cf. loka, gati.

– 126 –

I

iddhi: ‘power’, ‘magical power’. The magical powers

constitute one of the 6 kinds of higher spiritual powers

(abhi¤¤à, q.v.). One distinguishes many kinds of magical

powers: the power of determination (adhiññhàn’

iddhi), i.e. the power of becoming oneself manifold;

the power of transformation (vikubbana iddhi), i.e. the

power of adopting another form; the power of spiritual

creation (manomaya iddhi), i.e. the power of letting

issue from this body another mentally produced body;

the power of penetrating knowledge (¤àõa-vipphara

iddhi), i.e. the power of inherent insight to remain unhurt

in danger; the power of penetrating concentration

(samàdhivippharà iddhi) producing the same result.

The magical powers are treated in detail in Vis.M. XII;

Pts.M., Vibh. – (App.). They are not a necessary condition

for final deliverance.

‘Noble power’ (ariyà-iddhi) is the power of controlling

one’s ideas in such a way that one may consider

something not repulsive as repulsive and something

repulsive as not repulsive, and remain all the time imperturbable

and full of equanimity. This training of

mind is frequently mentioned in the Suttas (e.g. M. 152,

A.V. 144), but only once the name of ariyà-iddhi is

applied to it (D. 28). See further Pts.M., Iddhi-kathà,

Vis.M. XII.

iddhi-pàda: ‘roads to power’ (or success) are the

4 following qualities, “for as guides, they indicate the

– 127 –

road to power connected therewith; and because they

form, by way of preparation, the roads to the power

constituting the fruition of the path” (Vis.M. XII), namely:

“concentration of intention (chanda-samàdhi)

accompanied by effort of will (padhàna-sankhàrasamannàgata),

concentration of energy (viriyasamàdhi)…

concentration of consciousness (cittasamàdhi)…

and concentration of investigation

(vimaüsa-samàdhi) accompanied by effort of will.” As

such, they are supermundane (lokuttara, i.e. connected

with the path or the fruition of the path;

s. ariyapuggala). But they are mundane (lokiya, q.v.) as

predominant factors (adhipati; s. paccaya 3), for it is

said: “Because the monk, through making intention a

predominant factor, reaches concentration, it is called

the concentration of intention (chanda-samàdhi), etc.”

(Vis.M. XII).

“These 4 roads of power lead to the attaining and

acquiring of magical power, to the power of magical

transformation, to the generation of magical power,

and to mastery and skill therein” (Pts.M. II. 205, PTS).

For a detailed explanation, s. Vis.M. XII.

“Once the monk has thus developed and often

practised the 4 roads to power, he enjoys various magical

powers,… hears with the divine ear heavenly and

human sounds,… perceives with his mind the mind of

other beings… remembers many a former existence…

perceives with the divine eye beings passing away and

reappearing,… attains, after the extinction of cankers,

deliverance of mind and deliverance through wisdom,

– 128 –

free from. cankers…. (S. LI, 2). For a detailed

explanation of these 6 higher powers, s. abhi¤¤à.

“Whosoever, O monks, has missed the 4 roads to

power, he has missed the right path leading to the

extinction of suffering; but whosoever, O monks, has

reached the 4 roads to power, he has reached the right

path leading to the extinction of suffering” (S. LI, 2).

See the chapter on Iddhipàda in The Requisites of

Enlightenment by Ledi Sayadaw (Wheel 169/172).

ignorance: avijjà (q.v.); further

s. pañiccasamuppàda (1).

ill-humour, heavenly beings who come to grief

through: mano-padosika-deva (q.v.).

ill-will: vyàpàda, is a synonym of dosa (s. måla) and

pañigha and is one of the 10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.),

5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.) and 10 unwholesome

courses of action (s. kammapatha, I).

image, mental: s. nimitta, samàdhi, kasiõa.

immaterial sphere: aråpàvacara: cf. avacara, jhàna

(5-8); Tab. I.

immaterial world: aråpa-loka; s. loka.

immediacy: an alternative rendering for contiguitycondition,

samanatara-paccaya, which is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.)

immediate, the: ànantariya (q.v.).

immortality: s. amata.

– 129 –

imperfections: s. upakkilesa.

impermanence: anicca (q.v.). – Contemplation of i.,

cf. vipassanà (1).

impersonality of existence: s. anattà. – Contemplation

of: s. vipassanà (3).

imperturbable karma-formations:

àne¤jàbhisankhàra; s. sankhàra.

impression, sensorial or mental: phassa (q.v.).

impulsion: javana (q.v.).

impurities: s. upakkilesa.

impurity of the body, contemplation of the: s. asubha,

sãvathikà.

inclinations: s. anusaya.

independently enlightened: Pacceka-Buddha (q.v.).

indifferent feeling cf. vedanà, upekkhà.

individual: puggala (q.v.).

indriya: ‘faculties’, is a name for 22, partly physical,

partly mental, phenomena often treated in the Suttas as

well as in the Abhidhamma. They are:

– 130 –

1. eye: cakkhu

2. ear: sota

3. nose: ghàna

4. tongue: j vhài 6 Bases (àyatana, q.v.)

5. body: kàya

6. mind: mano

7. femininity: itthi

8. masculinity: purisa Sex (bhava, q.v.)

9. vitality: jãvita

10. bodily pleasant feeling: sukha

11. bodily pain: dukkha

12. gladness: somanassa 5 Feelings

13. sadness: domanassa (vedanà, q. v.)

14. indifference: upekkhà

15. faith: saddhà

16. energy: viriya

17. mindfulness: sati 5 Spiritual Faculties

18. concentration: samàdhi (s. bala)

19. wisdom: pa¤¤à

20. the assurance: ‘I shall know

what I did not yet know!’:

a¤¤àta¤-¤assàmãt’ indriya

21. the faculty of highest 3 Supermundane

knowledge: a¤¤indriya Faculties

22. the faculty of him who

knows: a¤¤àtàvindriya.

(1-5, 7-8) are physical; (9) is either physical or

mental. All the rest are mental. – (14) (s. upekkhà) is

here merely indifferent feeling (= adukkha-m-asukhà

– 131 –

vedanà, i.e. ‘neither pleasant nor unpleasant feeling’)

and not identical with that highly ethical state of equanimity

(= tatramajjhattatà, i.e. ‘keeping everywhere the

middle’, the equipoise of mind), also called upekkhà

which belongs to the group of mental formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha; s. Tab II). – (20) arises at the

moment of entering the Sotàpatti-Path (sotàpattimagga),

(21) on reaching the Sotàpatti-Fruition

(sotàpatti-phala), (22) at attaining the Arahat-Fruition

(arahatta-phala). For the three last, s. ariya-puggala.

The faculties, excepting (7) and (8), form one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya 16, q.v.).

In Vibh. V all these faculties are treated in the

above order, whereas S. XLVIII enumerates and explains

them by way of the above indicated groups,

leaving only 20-22 unexplained. See Vis. XVI;

Path 138ff. – For the 5 spiritual faculties (15-19),

s. The Way of Wisdom (Wheel 65/66).

indriya-paccaya: s. paccaya 16.

indriya-samatta: ‘equilibrium, balance, or harmony of

faculties’, relates to the 5 spiritual faculties: faith,

energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom

(s. indriya 15-19). Of these there are two pairs of

faculties, in each of which both faculties should well

counter-balance each other, namely: faith and wisdom

(saddhà, pa¤¤à, q.v.) on the one hand and energy and

concentration (viriya, samàdhi, q.v.) on the other. For

excessive faith with deficient wisdom leads to blind

belief, whilst excessive wisdom with deficient faith

leads to cunning. In the same way, great energy with

weak concentration leads to restlessness, whilst strong

– 132 –

concentration with deficient energy leads to indolence.

Though for both faculties in each of the 2 pairs a

balanced degree of intensity is desirable, mindfulness

should be allowed to develop to the highest degree of

strength. Cf. Vis.M. III – (App.).

indriya-saüvara-sãla: ‘morality consisting of purity of

restraint of the senses’; s. sãla.

indriyesu gutta-dvàratà: ‘guarding the sense-doors’ is

identical with sense-control (indriya-saüvara; s. sãla).

in-and-out-breathing, watching over: ànàpànasati

(q.v.).

inducement: an alternative rendering for decisivesupport

condition, upanissaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya; q.v.).

indulging (in joy, sadness etc.): s. manopavicàra.

ineffective karma: s. karma.

infatuation: cf. mada, moha (s. måla), avijjà.

inference of meaning: an ‘expression the meaning of

which is to be inferred’: neyyattha-dhamma (q.v.). –

Antonym: ‘expression with an established meaning’:

nãtattha-dhamma (s. neyyattha-dhamma).

inferiority-conceit: s. màna.

influxes (cankers), the 4: àsava (q.v.).

inoperative consciousness, karmically; s. kiriyacitta.

– 133 –

inseparable mental factors, the 7 i. m. f. in all

consciousness: s. cetanà, phassa, nàma.

insight: cf. pa¤¤à, vipassanà, ¤àõa.

intelligent-natured: s. carita.

intention: chanda (q.v.).

interest: pãti (q.v.); cf. Tab. II.

intimation: cf. vi¤¤atti.

intoxicants: s. àsava.

intoxicating drinks, the evil effect of taking:

s. suràmeraya.

investigating function (of consciousness): santãraõa;

s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

investigation, full understanding through:

tãranapari¤¤à, s. pari¤¤à. – ‘Investigation’ (vãmaüsà) is

one of the 4 roads to power (iddhipàda, q.v.) and one

of the 4 predominants (adhipati; s. paccaya 3). – i. of

truth: dhamma-vicaya, is one of the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.).

iriyà-patha (lit. ‘ways of movement’): ‘bodily postures’,

i.e. going, standing, sitting, lying. In the Satipaññhànasutta

(s. satipaññhàna), they form the subject of a contemplation

and an exercise in mindfulness.

“While going, standing, sitting or lying down, the

monk knows ‘I go’, ‘I stand’, ‘I sit’, ‘I lie down’; he understands

any position of the body.” – “The disciple understands

that there is no living being, no real ego, that

goes, stands, etc., but that it is by a mere figure of

– 134 –

speech that one says: ‘I go’, ‘I stand’, and so forth.”

(Com.).

issà: ‘envy’, is a karmically unwholesome (akusala)

mental factor, which is occasionally associated with

hate-rooted consciousness (s. Tab. I. 30, 31,).

Explained in Pug. 55.

itthindriya: ‘femininity’; s. bhàva.

– 135 –

J

janaka-kamma: ‘regenerative karma’; s. karma.

jarà: ‘old age, decay’, is one of the 3 divine messengers

(s. deva-dåta, q.v.). For its conditioning by birth,

s. pañiccasamuppàda (11).

jàti: ‘birth’, comprises the entire embryonic process

beginning with conception and ending with parturition.

“The birth of beings belonging to this or that order

of beings, their being born, their conception (okkanti)

and springing into existence, the manifestation of the

groups (corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations,

consciousness; s. khandha), the acquiring of

their sensitive organs: this is called birth” (D. 22). For

its conditioning by the prenatal karma-process (kammabhava;

s. bhava), s. pañiccasamuppàda (9, 10),

pañisandhi.

javana (fr. javati, to impel): ‘impulsion’, is the phase of

full cognition in the cognitive series, or perceptual process

(citta-vãthi; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca) occurring at its climax,

if the respective object is large or distinct. It is at

this phase that karma is produced, i.e. wholesome or

unwholesome volition concerning the perception that

was the object of the previous stages of the respective

process of consciousness. There are normally 7 impulsive

moments. In mundane consciousness (lokiya, q.v.),

any of the 17 karmically wholesome classes of con-

136 –

sciousness (Tab. I, 1-17) or of the 12 unwholesome

ones (Tab. I, 22-23) may arise at the phase of impulsion.

For the Arahat, however, impulsion has no longer

a karmic, i.e. rebirth-producing character, but is a karmically

independent function (kiriya, q.v.; Tab. I, 72-89).

There are further 8 supermundane classes of impulsion

(Tab. I, 18-21, 66-69).

The 4 impulsive moments immediately before entering

an absorption (jhàna, q.v.) or one of the supermundane

paths (magga; s. ariyapuggala) are: the preparatory

(parikamma), approach (upacàra), adaptation

(anuloma), and maturity-moment (gotrabhå, q.v.). In

connection with entering the earth-kasina absorption

(s. kasiõa), they are explained as follows, in Vis.M. IV:

“After the breaking off of the subconscious stream of

being (bhavanga-sota, q.v.), there arises the ‘advertence

at the mind-door’ (manodvàràvajjana, s. vi¤¤àõakicca),

taking as object the earth-kasina (whilst thinking),

‘Earth! Earth!’ Thereupon, 4 or 5 impulsive moments

flash forth, amongst which the last one (maturitymoment)

belongs to the fine-material sphere (råpàvacara),

whereas the rest belong to the sense-sphere

(kàmàvacara; s. avacara), though the last one is more

powerful in thought conception, discursive thinking,

interest (rapture), joy and concentration (cf. jhàna)

than the states of consciousness belonging to the sensesphere.

They are called ‘preparatory’ (parikammasamàdhi),

as they are preparing for the attainmentconcentration

(appanà-samàdhi); ‘approaching’

(upacàra-samàdhi), as they are close to the attainmentconcentration

and are moving in its neighbourhood;

‘adaptive’ (anuloma), as they adapt themselves to the

– 137 –

preceding preparatory states and to the succeeding

attainment concentration. The last one of the four is

called ‘matured’ (gotrabhå). In a similar way, the

impulsive moments before reaching the divine ear are

described in Vis.M. XIII, 1. – Cf. Karma – (App.).

jewels. The 3: ti-ratana (q.v.).

jhàna: ‘absorption’ (meditation) refers chiefly to the

four meditative absorptions of the fine-material sphere

(råpa-jjhàna or råpàvacara-jjhàna; s. avacara). They are

achieved through the attainment of full (or attainment-,

or ecstatic) concentration (appanà, s. samàdhi), during

which there is a complete, though temporary, suspension

of fivefold sense-activity and of the 5 hindrances

(s. nãvaraõa). The state of consciousness, however, is

one of full alertness and lucidity. This high degree of

concentration is generally developed by the practice of

one of the 40 subjects of tranquillity meditation

(samatha-kammaññhàna; s. bhàvanà). Often also the

4 immaterial spheres (aråpàyatana) are called absorptions

of the immaterial sphere (aråpa-jjhàna or

aråpàvacara-jjhàna). The stereotype text, often met

with in the Suttas, runs as follows:

(1) “Detached from sensual objects, O monks,

detached from unwholesome consciousness, attached

with thought-conception (vitakka) and discursive

thinking (vicàra), born of detachment (vivekaja) and

filled with rapture (pãti) and joy (sukha) he enters the

first absorption.

(2) “After the subsiding of thought-conception and

discursive thinking, and by gaining inner tranquillity

and oneness of mind, he enters into a state free from

– 138 –

thought-conception and discursive thinking, the second

absorption, which is born of concentration (samàdhi),

and filled with rapture (pãti) and joy (sukha).

(3) “After the fading away of rapture he dwells in

equanimity, mindful, clearly conscious; and he experiences

in his person that feeling of which the Noble

Ones say, ‘Happy lives the man of equanimity and

attentive mind’; thus he enters the 3rd absorption.

(4) “After having given up pleasure and pain, and

through the disappearance of previous joy and grief, he

enters into a state beyond pleasure and pain, into the

4th absorption, which is purified by equanimity

(upekkhà) and mindfulness.

(5) “Through the total overcoming of the perceptions

of matter, however, and through the vanishing of

sense-reactions and the non-attention to the perceptions

of variety, with the idea, ‘Boundless is space’, he

reaches the sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana)

and abides therein.

[“By ‘perceptions of matter’ (råpa-sa¤¤à) are meant

the absorptions of the fine-material sphere, as well as

those objects themselves… “ (Vis.M. X, 1).

“By ‘perceptions of sense-reactions’ (pañigha-sa¤¤à)

are meant those perceptions that have arisen due to the

impact of sense-organs (eye, etc.) and the sense-objects

(visible objects, etc.). They are a name for the perception

of visible objects, as it is said (Jhàna-Vibh.): ‘What

are here the perceptions of sense-reactions? They are

the perceptions of visible objects, sounds, etc.’ – Surely,

they do no longer exist even for one who has entered

the 1st absorption, etc., for at such a time the five-sense

– 139 –

consciousness is no longer functioning. Nevertheless,

this is to be understood as having been said in praise of

this immaterial absorption, in order to incite the striving

for it” (Vis.M. X, 16).

“Perceptions of variety (¤àõatta-sa¤¤à) are the

perceptions that arise in various fields, or the various

perceptions” (ib.). Hereby, according to Vis.M. X, 20,

are meant the multiform perceptions outside the

absorptions.]

(6) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

boundless space, and with the idea ‘Boundless is consciousness’,

he reaches the sphere of boundless consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana) and abides therein.

(7) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

boundless consciousness, and with the idea ‘Nothing is

there’, he reaches the sphere of nothingness

(àki¤ca¤¤àyatana) and abides therein.

(8) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

nothingness he reaches the sphere of neither-perception-

nor-non-perception (nevasa¤¤à-n’asa¤¤àyatana)

and abides therein.”

“Thus the 1st absorption is free from 5 things

(i.e. the hindrances, nãvaraõa, q.v.), and 5 things are

present (i.e. the factors of absorption; jhànanga).

Whenever the monk enters the 1st absorption, there

have vanished sensuous desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor,

restlessness and scruples, doubts; and there are

present: thought-conception (vitakka), discursive thinking

(vicàra) rapture (pãti), joy (sukha), and concentration

(samàdhi). In the 2nd absorption there are present:

rapture, joy and concentration; in the 3rd: joy and con-

140 –

centration; in the 4th: equanimity (upekkhà) and

concentration” (Vis.M. IV).

The 4 absorptions of the immaterial sphere

(s. above 5-8) still belong, properly speaking, to the

4th absorption as they possess the same two constituents.

The 4th fine-material absorption is also the base

or starting point (pàdaka-jhàna, q.v.) for the attaining of

the higher spiritual powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.).

In the Abhidhamma, generally a fivefold instead of

a fourfold division of the fine-material absorptions is

used: the 2nd absorption has still the constituent

‘discursive thinking’ (but without thought-conception),

while the 3rd, 4th and 5th correspond to the 2nd, 3rd

and 4th, respectively, of the fourfold division (s. Tab. I,

9-13). This fivefold division is based on sutta texts like

A. VIII, 63.

For the 8 absorptions as objects for the development

of insight (vipassanà), see samatha-vipassanà. –

Full details in Vis.M. IV-X.

Jhàna in its widest sense (e.g. as one of the 24 conditions;

s. paccaya 17), denotes any, even momentary

or weak absorption of mind, when directed on a single

object.

jhànanga: ‘constituents (or factors) of absorption’;

s. prec.

jhàna-paccaya, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

jãva: life, vital principle, individual soul. ‘Soul (life)

and body are identical’ and ‘Soul and body are different’,

these two frequently quoted wrong views fall

– 141 –

under the 2 kinds of personality-belief (sakkàya-diññhi;

s. diññhi), i.e. the first one under the annihilation-belief

(uccheda-diññhi) and the second under the eternitybelief

(sassata-diññhi).

“Verily, if one holds the view that the soul (life) is

identical with the body, in that case a holy life is not

possible; or if one holds the view that the soul (life) is

something quite different, also in that case a holy life is

impossible. Both these extremes the Perfect One has

avoided and shown the Middle Doctrine, which says:

‘On ignorance depend the karma-formations, on the

karma-formations depends consciousness’, etc.”

(S. XII. 35).

jãvita and jãvitindriya: ‘Life, vitality’, may be either

physical (råpa-jãvitindriya) or mental (nàmajãvitindriya).

The latter is one of the mental factors

inseparably associated with all consciousness; cf. nàma,

cetanà, phassa.

jãvita-navaka-kalàpa: ninefold vital group; s. råpakalàpa.

joy: somanassa (q.v.). – Altruistic j. = mudità

(s. brahma-vihàra).

– 142 –

K

kabalinkàràhàra: lit. ‘food formed into balls’, i.e. food

formed into mouthfuls for eating (according to Indian

custom); it denotes ‘material food’ and belongs, together

with the three mental nutriments, to the group of

four nutriments (s. àhàra).

kalàpa, ‘group’, ‘unit’: 1. ‘corporeal unit’ (s. råpakalàpa);

2. It has the meaning of ‘group of existence’

(khandha) in kalàpasammasana (s. sammasana),

i.e. ‘comprehension by groups’, which is the application

of ‘methodical (or inductive) insight’ (naya-vipassanà)

to the comprehension of the 5 aggregates (khandha) as

impermanent, painful and not-self. It is a process of

methodical summarization, or generalization, from

one’s own meditative experience that is applied to each

of the 5 aggregates, viewed as past, present, future, as

internal and external, etc. In Vis.M. XX, where the ‘comprehension

by groups’ is treated in detail, it is said to

constitute ‘the beginning of insight’ as it leads to the

‘knowledge of rise and fall’, being the first of the

8 insight-knowledges (s. visuddhi VI). It is necessary for

accomplishing the 5th purification (s. visuddhi V;

Vis.M. XX, 2, 6ff.).

kalpa: (Skr) = kappa (q.v.).

kalyàõa-mitta: ‘noble (or good) friend’, is called a

senior monk who is the mentor and friend of his pupil,

“wishing for his welfare and concerned with his

– 143 –

progress”, guiding his meditation; in particular, the

meditation teacher (kammaññhànàcariya) is so called.

For details see Vis.M. III, 28, 57ff. The Buddha said that

“noble friendship is the entire holy life” (S. III, 18;

XLV, 2), and he himself is the good friend par excellence:

“Ananda, it is owing to my being a good friend to

them that living beings subject to birth are freed from

birth” (S. III, 18).

kàma may denote: 1. subjective sensuality, ‘sensedesire’;

2. objective sensuality, the five sense-objects.

1. Subjective sensuality, or sense-desire, is directed

to all five sense-objects, and is synonymous with kàmacchanda,

‘sensuous desire’, one of the 5 hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.); kàma-ràga, sensuous lust’, one of the

ten fetters (saüyojana, q.v.); kàma-taõhà, ‘sensuous

craving’, one of the 3 cravings (taõhà, q.v.); kàmavitakka,

‘sensuous thought’, one of the 3 wrong

thoughts (micchà-sankappa; s. vitakka). – Sense-desire

is also one of the cankers (àsava, q.v.) and clingings

(upàdàna, q.v.).

2. Objective sensuality is, in the canonical texts,

mostly called kàma-guõa, ‘cords (or strands) of sensuality’.

“There are 5 cords of sensuality: the visible objects,

cognizable by eye-consciousness, that are desirable,

cherished, pleasant, lovely, sensuous and alluring; the

sounds… smells… tastes… bodily impressions cognizable

by body-consciousness, that are desirable….”

(D. 33; M. 13, 26, 59, 66).

– 144 –

These two kinds of kàma are called 1. kilesa-kàma,

i.e. kàma as a mental defilement, 2. vatthu-kàma,

i.e. kàma as the object-base of sensuality; first in

MNid. I, p. 1, and frequently in the commentaries.

Sense-desire is finally eliminated at the stage of the

Non-Returner (Anàgàmi; s. ariya-puggala, saüyojana).

The peril and misery of sense-desire is often described

in the texts, e.g. in stirring similes at M. 22, 54, and

in the ‘gradual instruction’ (s. ànupubbã-kathà). See

further M. 13, 45, 75; Sn. v. 766ff.; Dhp. 186, 215.

The texts often stress the fact that what fetters man

to the world of the senses are not the sense-organs nor

the sense-objects but lustful desire (chandaràga). On

this see A. VI, 63; S. XXXV, 122, 191. – (App.).

kàma-bhava: ‘sensuous existence’; s. bhava.

kàma-cchanda: ‘sensuous desire’, s. nãvaraõa, chanda.

kàma-guna: s. kàma.

kàma-loka: ‘sensuous world’, s. loka.

kàma-ràga: ‘sensuous lust’, is one of the 10 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.).

kàmàsava: s. àsava.

kàma-sukh’allikànuyoga: ‘being addicted to sensual

pleasures’, is one of the 2 extremes to be avoided by

the monk; s. majjhima-pañipadà.

kàma-taõhà: ‘sensuous craving’; s. taõhà.

– 145 –

kàmàvacara: ‘sensuous sphere’; s. avacara.

kàmesu-micchàcàra: lit. ‘wrong or evil conduct with

regard to sensual things’; ‘unlawful sexual intercourse’

refers to adultery, and to intercourse with minors or

other persons under guardianship. The abstaining from

this unlawful act is one of the 5 moral rules

(s. sikkhàpada) binding upon all Buddhists. Through

any other sexual act one does not become guilty of the

above transgression, which is considered a great crime.

The monk, however, has to observe perfect chastity.

In many Suttas (e.g. A.X., 176) we find the following

explanation: “He avoids unlawful sexual intercourse,

abstains from it. He has no intercourse with girls

who are still under the protection of father or mother,

brother, sister or relatives, nor with married women,

nor female convicts, nor, lastly, with betrothed girls.”

kamma: (wholesome or unwholesome) action;

s. karma.

kamma-bhava: s. bhava, pañiccasamuppàda.

kammaja-råpa: ‘karma-produced corporeality’;

s. samuññhàna.

kamma¤¤atà: ‘adaptability’, i.e. of corporeality

(råpassa; s. khandha, Summary I), mental factors

(kàya), and of consciousness (citta); cf. Tab. II.

kammanta, sammà-: ‘right action’; s. magga.

kamma-paccaya: ‘karma as condition’; s. paccaya (13).

– 146 –

kamma-patha: ‘course of action’, is a name for the

group of 10 kinds of either unwholesome or wholesome

actions, viz.

I. The tenfold unwholesome courses of action

(akusala-kamma-patha):

3 bodily actions: killing, stealing, unlawful sexual

intercourse;

4 verbal actions: lying, slandering, rude speech,

foolish babble;

3 mental actions: covetousness, ill-will, evil views.

Unwholesome mental courses of action comprise

only extreme forms of defiled thought: the greedy wish

to appropriate others’ property, the hateful thought of

harming others, and pernicious views. Milder forms of

mental defilement are also unwholesome, but do not

constitute ‘courses of action’.

II. The tenfold wholesome course of action (kusalakamma-

patha):

3 bodily actions: avoidance of killing, stealing,

unlawful sexual intercourse;

4 verbal actions: avoidance of lying, slandering,

rude speech, foolish babble; i.e. true, conciliatory, mild,

and wise speech;

3 mental actions: unselfishness, good-will, right

views.

Both lists occur repeatedly, e.g. in A. X, 28, 176;

M. 9; they are explained in detail in M. 114, and in

Com. to M. 9 (R. Und., p. 14), Atthasàlini Tr. I, 126ff.

kamma-samuññhàna-råpa: ‘corporeality produced

through karma’; s. samuññhàna.

– 147 –

kammaññhàna: lit. ‘working-ground’ (i.e. for

meditation), is the term in the Com. for ‘subjects of

meditation’; s. bhàvanà.

kamma-vañña: ‘karma-round’; s. vañña.

kammàyåhana: s. àyåhana.

kàmupàdàna: ‘sensuous clinging’, is one of the 4 kinds

of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

kankhà: ‘doubt’, may be either an intellectual, critical

doubt or an ethically and psychologically detrimental

doubt. The latter may either be a persistent negative

skepticism or wavering indecision. Only the detrimental

doubt (identical with vicikicchà, q.v.) is to be rejected as

karmically unwholesome, as it paralyses thinking and

hinders the inner development of man. Reasoned, critical

doubt in dubious matters is thereby not discouraged.

The 16 doubts enumerated in the Suttas (e.g. M. 2)

are the following: “Have I been in the past? Or, have I

not been in the past? What have I been in the past?

How have I been in the past? From what state into

what state did I change in the past? – Shall I be in the

future? Or, shall I not be in the future? What shall I be

in the future? How shall I be in the future? From what

state into what state shall I change in the future? – Am

I? Or, am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence has

this being come? Whither will it go?”

kankhà-vitaraõa-visuddhi: ‘purification by

overcoming doubt’, is the 4th of the 7 stages of

purification (visuddhi, q.v.).

– 148 –

kappa (Sanskrit kalpa): ‘world-period’, an inconceivably

long space of time, an aeon. This again is subdivided

into 4 sections: world-dissolution (samvaññakappa)

dissolving world), continuation of the chaos

(samvañña-ññhàyã), world-formation (vivañña-kappa),

continuation of the formed world (vivañña-ññhàyã).

“How long a world-dissolution will continue, how

long the chaos, how long the formation, how long the

continuation of the formed world, of these things;

O monks, one hardly can say that it will be so many

years, or so many centuries, or so many millennia, or so

many hundred thousands of years” (A. IV, 156).

A detailed description of the 4 world-periods is given in

that stirring discourse on the all-embracing impermanence

in A. VII, 62.

The beautiful simile in S. XV, 5 may be mentioned

here: “Suppose, O monks, there was a huge rock of one

solid mass, one mile long, one mile wide, one mile

high, without split or flaw. And at the end of every hundred

years a man should come and rub against it once

with a silken cloth. Then that huge rock would wear off

and disappear quicker than a world-period. But of such

world-periods, O monks, many have passed away,

many hundreds, many thousands, many hundred thousands.

And how is this possible? Inconceivable,

O monks, is this saüsàra (q.v.), not to be discovered is

any first beginning of beings, who obstructed by ignorance

and ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening

through this round of rebirths.”

– 149 –

Compare here Grimm’s German fairy-tale of the

little shepherdboy: ‘In Farther Pommerania there is the

diamond-mountain, one hour high, one hour wide, one

hour deep. There every hundred years a little bird

comes and whets its little beak on it. And when the

whole mountain is ground off, then the first second of

eternity has passed.”

karma (Sanskrit), Pàli: kamma: ‘action’, correctly

speaking denotes the wholesome and unwholesome

volitions (kusala- and akusala-cetanà) and their concomitant

mental factors, causing rebirth and shaping

the destiny of beings. These karmical volitions (kamma

cetanà) become manifest as wholesome or unwholesome

actions by body (kàya-kamma), speech (vacãkamma)

and mind (mano-kamma). Thus the Buddhist

term ‘karma’ by no means signifies the result of actions,

and quite certainly not the fate of man, or perhaps even

of whole nations (the so-called wholesale or masskarma),

misconceptions which, through the influence of

theosophy, have become widely spread in the West.

“Volition (cetanà), O monks, is what I call action

(cetanàhaü bhikkhave kammaü vadàmi), for through

volition one performs the action by body, speech or

mind.. There is karma (action), O monks, that ripens in

hell…. Karma that ripens in the animal world.. Karma

that ripens in the world of men…. Karma that ripens in

the heavenly world…. Threefold, however, is the fruit

of karma: ripening during the life-time (diññha-dhammavedanãya-

kamma), ripening in the next birth (upapajjavedanãya-

kamma), ripening in later births (aparàpariyavedanãya

kamma)….” (A.VI, 63).

– 150 –

The 3 conditions or roots (måla, q.v.) of unwholesome

karma (actions) are greed, hatred, delusion

(lobha, dosa, moha); those of wholesome karma are:

unselfishness (alobha), hatelessness (adosa = mettà,

good-will), undeludedness (amoha = pa¤¤à,

knowledge).

“Greed, O monks, is a condition for the arising of

karma; hatred is a condition for the arising of karma;

delusion is a condition for the arising of karma….”

(A. III, 109).

“The unwholesome actions are of 3 kinds, conditioned

by greed, or hate, or delusion.

“Killing… stealing… unlawful sexual intercourse…

lying… slandering… rude speech… foolish babble, if

practised, carried on, and frequently cultivated, leads to

rebirth in hell, or amongst the animals, or amongst the

ghosts” (A. III, 40). “He who kills and is cruel goes

either to hell or, if reborn as man, will be short-lived.

He who torments others will be afflicted with disease.

The angry one will look ugly, the envious one will be

without influence, the stingy one will be poor, the stubborn

one will be of low descent, the indolent one will

be without knowledge. In the contrary case, man will

be reborn in heaven or reborn as man, he will be longlived,

possessed of beauty, influence, noble descent

and knowledge” (cf. M. 135).

For the above 10-fold wholesome and unwholesome

course of action, see kamma-patha. For the

5 heinous crimes with immediate result, s. ànantarikakamma.

– 151 –

“Owners of their karma are the beings, heirs of their

karma, their karma is their womb from which they are

born, their karma is their friend, their refuge. Whatever

karma they perform, good or bad, thereof they will be

the heirs” (M. 135).

With regard to the time of the taking place of the

karma-result (vipàka), one distinguishes, as mentioned

above, 3 kinds of karma:

1. karma ripening during the life-time (diññhadhamma-

vedanãya kamma);

2. karma ripening in the next birth (upapajjavedanãya-

kamma);

3. karma ripening in later births (aparàpariyavedanãya-

kamma).

The first two kinds of karma may be without karmaresult

(vipàka), if the circumstances required for the

taking place of the karma-result are missing, or if,

through the preponderance of counteractive karma and

their being too weak, they are unable to produce any

result. In this case they are called ahosi-kamma,

lit. ‘karma that has been’, in other words, ineffectual

karma.

The third type of karma, however, which bears fruit

in later lives, will, whenever and wherever there is an

opportunity, be productive of karma-result. Before its

result has ripened, it will never become ineffective as

long as the life-process is kept going by craving and

ignorance.

According to the Com., e.g. Vis.M. XIX, the 1st of

the 7 karmical impulsive-moments (kamma javana;

– 152 –

s. javana) is considered as ‘karma ripening during the

life-time’, the 7th moment as ‘karma ripening in the

next birth’, the remaining 5 moments as ‘karma ripening

in later births’.

With regard to their functions one distinguishes:

1. regenerative (or productive) karma (janakakamma),

2. supportive (or consolidating) karma

(upatthambhaka-kamma),

3. counteractive (suppressive or frustrating) karma

(upapãëaka-kamma),

4. destructive (or supplanting) karma (upaghàtakaor

upacchedaka-kamma).

(1) produces the 5 groups of existence (corporeality,

feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness)

at rebirth as well as during life-continuity.

(2) does not produce karma-results but is only able

to maintain the already produced karma-results.

(3) counteracts or suppresses the karma-results.

(4) destroys the influence of a weaker karma and

effects only its own result.

With regard to the priority of their result one

distinguishes:

1. weighty karma (garuka-kamma),

2. habitual karma (àciõõaka– or bahula-kamma),

3. death-proximate karma (maraõàsanna-kamma),

4. stored-up karma (kañattà-kamma).

(1, 2) The weighty (garuka) and the habitual

(bahula) wholesome or unwholesome karma are

ripening earlier than the light and rarely performed

– 153 –

karma. (3) The death-proximate (maranàsanna) karma

– i.e. the wholesome or unwholesome volition present

immediately before death, which often may be the reflex

of some previously performed good or evil action

(kamma), or of a sign of it (kamma-nimitta), or of a

sign of the future existence (gati-nimitta) – produces

rebirth. (4) In the absence of any of these three actions

at the moment before death, the stored-up (kañattà)

karma will produce rebirth.

A real, and in the ultimate sense true, understanding

of Buddhist karma doctrine is possible only through

a deep insight into the impersonality (s. anattà) and

conditionality (s. pañiccasamuppàda, paccaya) of all

phenomena of existence. “Everywhere, in all the forms

of existence… such a one is beholding merely mental

and physical phenomena kept going by their being

bound up through causes and effects.

“No doer does he see behind the deeds, no recipient

apart from the karma-fruit. And with full insight he

clearly understands that the wise ones are using merely

conventional terms when, with regard to the taking

place of any action, they speak of a doer, or when they

speak of a receiver of the karma-results at their arising.

Therefore the ancient masters have said:

‘No doer of the deeds is found,

No one who ever reaps their fruits;

Empty phenomena roll on:

This view alone is right and true.

‘And whilst the deeds and their results

Roll on, based on conditions all,

There no beginning can be seen,

Just as it is with seed and tree.’ ” (Vis.M. XIX)

– 154 –

Karma (kamma-paccaya) is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.) (App.: Kamma).

Literature: Karma and Rebirth, by Nyanatiloka

(Wheel 9); Survival and Karma in Buddhist Perspective, by

K.N. Jayatilleke (Wheel 141/143); Kamma and its Fruit

(Wheel 221/224).

karma-accumulation: àyåhana (q.v.).

karma-formations: sankhàra, i.e. wholesome or unwholesome

volitions (cetanà) manifested as actions of

body, speech or mind, form the 2nd link of the formula

of dependent origination (pañicca-samuppàda, q.v.).

karma-process: s. bhava, pañiccasamuppàda.

karma-produced corporeality: s. samuññhàna.

karma-result: vipàka (q.v.).

karma-round: kamma vañña (s. vañña).

karmically acquired corporeality:

upàdiõõaråpa (q.v.).

karmically wholesome, unwholesome, neutral:

kusala (q.v.), akusala (q.v.), avyàkata (q.v.); cf. Tab. I.

karuõà: ‘compassion’, is one of the 4 sublime abodes

(brahma-vihàra, q.v.).

kasiõa: (perhaps related to Sanskrit krtsna, ‘all, complete,

whole’), is the name for a purely external device

to produce and develop concentration of mind and attain

the 4 absorptions (jhàna q.v.). It consists in concentrating

one’s full and undivided attention on one visible

– 155 –

object as preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta),

e.g. a colored spot or disc, or a piece of earth, or a pond

at some distance, etc., until at last one perceives, even

with the eyes closed, a mental reflex, the acquired

image (uggaha-nimitta). Now, while continuing to

direct one’s attention to this image, there may arise the

spotless and immovable counter-image (pañibhàganimitta),

and together with it the neighbourhood-concentration

(upacàra-samàdhi) will have been reached.

While still persevering in the concentration on the

object, one finally will reach a state of mind where all

sense-activity is suspended, where there is no more

seeing and hearing, no more perception of bodily

impression and feeling, i.e. the state of the 1st mental

absorption (jhàna, q.v.).

The 10 kasinas mentioned in the Suttas are: earthkasina,

water, fire, wind, blue, yellow, red, white,

space, and consciousness. “There are 10 kasina-spheres:

someone sees the earth kasina, above, below, on all

sides, undivided, unbounded… someone see the waterkasina,

above, below, etc.” (M. 77; D. 33)

Cf. abhibhàyatan, bhàvanà; further s. Fund. IV.

For space and consciousness-kasina we find in

Vis.M. V the names limited space-kasina

(paricchinnàkàsa-kasiõa;… s. App.) and light-kasina

(àloka-kasiõa).

For full description see Vis.M. IV-V; also

Atthasàlini Tr. I, 248.

kañattà-kamma: ‘stored-up karma’; s. karma.

– 156 –

kàya (lit: accumulation): ‘group’, ‘body’, may either

refer to the physical body (råpa-kàya) or to the mental

body (nàma-kàya). In the latter case it is either a collective

name for the mental groups (feeling, perception,

mental formations, consciousness; s. khandha), or

merely for feeling, perception and a few of the mental

formations (s. nàma), e.g. in kàya-lahutà, etc.

(cf. Tab. II). Kàya has this same meaning in the standard

description of the 3rd absorption (jhàna, q.v.) “and

he feels joy in his mind or his mental constitution

(kàya)”, and (e.g. Pug. 1-8) of the attainment of the

8 deliverances (vimokkha, q.v.); “having attained the

8 deliverances in his mind, or his person (kàya).” –

Kàya is also the 5th sense-organ, the body-organ;

s. àyatana, dhàtu, indriya.

kàya-gatà-sati: ‘mindfulness with regard to the body’,

refers sometimes (e.g. Vis.M. VIII, 2) only to the contemplation

on the 32 parts of the body, sometimes

(e.g. M. 119) to all the various meditations comprised

under the ‘contemplation of the body’ (kàyànupassanà),

the 1st of the 4 ‘foundations of mindfulness’ (satipaññhàna,

q.v.), consisting partly in concentration

(samàdhi) exercises, partly in insight (vipassanà) exercises.

On the other hand, the cemetery meditations

(sãvathika, q.v.) mentioned in the Satipaññhàna

S.(M. 10) are nearly the same as the 10 contemplations

of loathsomeness (asubha-bhàvanà, q.v.). of Vis.M. VI,

whereas elsewhere the contemplation on the 32 parts

of the body is called the ‘reflection on impurity’

(pañikkåla-sa¤¤à).

In such texts as: ‘One thing, O monks, developed

and repeatedly practised, leads to the attainment of

– 157 –

wisdom. It is the contemplation on the body’ (A. I), the

reference is to all exercises mentioned in the 1st

Satipaññhàna.

Vis.M. VIII, 2 gives a detailed description and explanation

of the method of developing the contemplation

on the 32 parts of the body. This exercise can

produce the 1st absorption only (jhàna, q.v.). The

stereotype text given in the Satipaññhàna Sutta and elsewhere

– but leaving out the brain – runs as follows:

“And further, O monks, the monk contemplates this

body from the soles of the feet upward, and from the

tops of the hairs downward, with skin stretched over it,

and filled with manifold impurities: ‘This body has hairs

of the head, hairs of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh,

sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm,

spleen, lungs, intestines, bowels, stomach, excrement,

bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin

grease, spittle, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, and

urine….”

Vis.M. VIII, 2 says “By repeating the words of this

exercise one will become well acquainted with the

wording, the mind will not rush here and there, the

different parts will become distinct and appear like a

row of fingers, or a row of hedge-poles. Now, just as

one repeats the exercise in words, one should do it also

in mind. The repeating in mind forms the condition for

the penetration of the characteristic marks…. He who

thus has examined the parts of the body as to colour,

shape, region, locality and limits, and considers them

one by one, and not too hurriedly, as something loathsome,

to such a one, while contemplating the body, all

– 158 –

these things at the same time are appearing distinctly

clear. But also when keeping one’s attention fixed outwardly

(i.e. to the bodies of other beings), and when

all the parts appear distinctly, then all men and animals

moving about lose the appearance of living beings and

appear like heaps of many different things. And it looks

as if those foods and drinks, being swallowed by them,

were being inserted into this heap of things. Now, while

again and again one is conceiving the idea ‘Disgusting!

Disgusting!’ – omitting in due course several parts –

gradually the attainment – concentration (appanàsamàdhi,

i.e. the concentration of the jhàna) will be

reached. In this connection, the appearing of forms… is

called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta), the arising

of loathsomeness, however, the counter-image

(pañibhàganimitta).”

kàya-kamma: ‘bodily action’; s. karma, kammapatha.

kàya-kamma¤¤atà, k.-lahutà, k.-mudutà,

k.-pàgu¤¤atà, k.-passaddhi, k.-ujukatà; s. Tab. II. For

passaddhi, s. further bojjhanga.

kàya-lahutà: agility or lightness of mental factors

(s. lahutà).

kàyànupassanà: ‘contemplation of the body’, is one of

the 4 foundations of mindfulness; s. satipaññhàna.

kàya-passaddhi: tranquillity of mental factors,

s. bojjhanga.

kàya-sakkhi: ‘body-witness’, is one of the 7 noble disciples

(s. ariya-puggala, B.). He is one who “in his own

person (lit. body) has attained the 8 deliverances

– 159 –

(vimokkha, q.v.), and after wisely understanding the

phenomena, the cankers have partly come to extinction”

(Pug. 32). In A. IX, 44 it is said: “A monk,

O brother, attains the 1st absorption (jhàna, q.v.), and

as far as this domain reaches, so far he has realized it in

his own person. Thus the Blessed One calls such a person

a body-witness in certain respects. (The same is

then repeated with regard to the 7 higher absorptions).

Further again, O brother, the monk attains the extinction

of perception and feeling (s. nirodha-samàpatti),

and after wisely understanding the phenomena, all the

cankers come to extinction. Thus, O brother, the

Blessed One calls such a person a body-witness in all

respects.”

kàya-vi¤¤atti: s. vi¤¤atti.

khalu-pacchà-bhattik’anga: s. dhutanga.

khaõa: ‘moment’; s. citta-kkhaõa.

khandha: the 5 ‘groups (of existence)’ or ‘groups of

clinging’ (upàdànakkhandha); alternative renderings:

aggregates, categories of clinging’s objects. These are

the 5 aspects in which the Buddha has summed up all

the physical and mental phenomena of existence, and

which appear to the ignorant man as his ego, or

personality, to wit:

(1) the corporeality group (råpa-kkhandha),

(2) the feeling group (vedanà-kkhandha),

(3) the perception group (sa¤¤à-kkhandha),

(4) the mental-formation group (sankhàrakkhandha),

(5) the consciousness-group (vi¤¤àõa-kkhandha).

– 160 –

“Whatever there exists of corporeal things, whether

past, present or future, one’s own or external, gross or

subtle, lofty or low, far or near, all that belongs to the

corporeality group. Whatever there exists of feeling…

of perception… of mental formations… of consciousness…

all that belongs to the consciousness-group”

(S. XXII, 48). – Another division is that into the

2 groups: mind (2-5) and corporeality (1) (nàmaråpa),

whilst in Dhamma Sanganã, the first book of the

Abhidhamma, all the phenomena are treated by way of

3 groups: consciousness (5), mental factors (2-4), corporeality

(1), in Pàli citta, cetasika, råpa. Cf. Guide I.

What is called individual existence is in reality

nothing but a mere process of those mental and physical

phenomena, a process that since time immemorial

has been going on, and that also after death will still

continue for unthinkably long periods of time. These

5 groups, however, neither singly nor collectively constitute

any self-dependent real ego-entity, or personality

(attà), nor is there to be found any such entity

apart from them. Hence the belief in such an ego-entity

or personality, as real in the ultimate sense, proves a

mere illusion.

“When all constituent parts are there,

The designation ‘cart’ is used;

Just so, where the five groups exist,

Of ‘living being’ do we speak.” (S. V. 10).

The fact ought to be emphasized here that these

5 groups, correctly speaking, merely form an abstract

classification by the Buddha, but that they as such,

i.e. as just these 5 complete groups, have no real exist-

161 –

ence, since only single representatives of these groups,

mostly variable, can arise with any state of consciousness.

For example, with one and the same unit of consciousness

only one single kind of feeling, say joy or

sorrow, can be associated and never more than one.

Similarly, two different perceptions cannot arise at the

same moment. Also, of the various kinds of sense-cognition

or consciousness, only one can be present at a

time, for example, seeing, hearing or inner consciousness,

etc. Of the 50 mental formations, however, a

smaller or larger number are always associated with

every state of consciousness, as we shall see later on.

Some writers on Buddhism who have not understood

that the five khandha are just classificatory groupings,

have conceived them as compact entities (‘heaps’,

‘bundles’), while actually, as stated above, the groups

never exist as such, i.e. they never occur in a simultaneous

totality of all their constituents. Also those single

constituents of a group which are present in any given

body- and -mind process, are of an evanescent nature,

and so also their varying combinations. Feeling, perception

and mental formations are only different aspects

and functions of a single unit of consciousness. They

are to consciousness what redness, softness, sweetness,

etc. are to an apple and have as little separate

existence as those qualities.

In S. XXII, 56, there is the following short definition

of these 5 groups:

“What, O monks, is the corporeality-group? The

4 primary elements (mahà-bhåta or dhàtu) and

corporeality depending thereon, this is called the

corporeality-group.

– 162 –

“What, O monks, is the feeling-group? There are

6 classes of feeling: due to visual impression, to sound

impression, to odour impression, to taste impression, to

bodily impression, and to mind impression….

“What, O monks, is the perception-group? There

are 6 classes of perception: perception of visual objects,

of sounds, of odours, of tastes, of bodily impressions,

and of mental impressions….

“What, O monks, is the group of mental formations?

There are 6 classes of volitional states (cetanà):

with regard to visual objects, to sounds, to odours, to

tastes, to bodily impressions and to mind objects….

“What, O monks, is the consciousness-group? There

are 6 classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness, earconsciousness,

nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,

body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness.”

About the inseparability of the groups it is said:

‘‘Whatever, O brother, there exists of feeling, of

perception and of mental formations, these things are

associated, not dissociated, and it is impossible to separate

one from the other and show their difference. For

whatever one feels, one perceives; and whatever one

perceives, of this one is conscious” (M. 43).

Further: “Impossible is it for anyone to explain the

passing out of one existence and the entering into a

new existence, or the growth, increase and development

of consciousness independent of corporeality,

feeling, perception and mental formations” (S. XII, 53).

For the inseparability and mutual conditionality of

the 4 mental groups s. paccaya (6, 7).

– 163 –

Regarding the impersonality (anattà) and

emptiness (su¤¤atà) of the 5 groups, it is said in

S. XXII, 49:

“Whatever there is of corporeality, feeling, perception,

mental formations and consciousness, whether

past, present or future, one’s own or external, gross or

subtle, lofty or low, far or near, this one should understand

according to reality and true wisdom: ‘This does

not belong to me, this am I not, this is not my Ego.’ ”

Further in S. XXII, 95: “Suppose that a man who is

not blind were to behold the many bubbles on the

Ganges as they are driving along; and he should watch

them and carefully examine them. After carefully examining

them, however, they will appear to him empty,

unreal and unsubstantial. In exactly the same way does

the monk behold all the corporeal phenomena… feelings…

perceptions… mental formations… states of consciousness,

whether they be of the past, present or

future… far or near. And he watches them and examines

them carefully; and after carefully examining

them, they appear to him empty, unreal and

unsubstantial.”

The 5 groups are compared, respectively, to a lump

of froth, a bubble, a mirage, a coreless plantain stem,

and a conjuring trick (S. XXII, 95).

See the Khandha Saüyutta (S. XXII); Vis.M. XIV.

– 164 –

Summary of the 5 Groups

I. Corporeality Group

(råpa-kkhandha)

A. Underived (no-upàdà): 4 elements

the solid, or earth-element (pañhavã-dhàtu)

the liquid, or water-element (àpo-dhàtu)

heat, or fire-element (tejo-dhàtu)

motion, or wind-element (vàyo-dhàtu)

B. Derived (upàdà): 24 secondary phenomena

Physical sense-organs of: seeing, hearing, smelling,

tasting, body

Physical sense-objects: form, sound, odour, taste,

(bodily impacts)

‘Bodily impacts’ (photthabba) are generally omitted in

this list, because these physical objects of body-sensitivity are

identical with the afore-mentioned solid element, heat and

motion element. Hence their inclusion under ‘derived

corporeality’ would be a duplication.

femininity (itthindriya)

virility (purisindriya)

physical base of mind (hadaya-vatthu, q.v.)

bodily expression (kàya-vi¤¤atti; s. vi¤¤atti)

verbal expression (vacã-vi¤¤atti)

physical life (råpa jãvita; s. jãvita)

space element (àkàsa-dhàtu, q.v.)

physical agility (råpassa lahutà)

physical elasticity (råpassa mudutà)

– 165 –

physical adaptability (råpassa kamma¤¤atà)

physical growth (råpassa upacaya)

physical continuity (råpassa santati; s. santàna)

decay (jarà, q.v.)

impermanence (aniccatà)

nutriment (àhàra, q.v.)

II. Feeling Group

(vedanà-kkhandha)

All feelings may, according to their nature, be classified

as 5 kinds:

bodily agreeable feeling : sukha = kàyikà sukhà vedanà

bodily painful feeling : dukkha = kàyikà dukkhà vedanà

mentally agreeable feeling : somanassa = cetasikà sukhà vedanà

mentally painful feeling : domanassa = cetasikà dukkhà vedanà

indifferent feeling : upekkhà = adukkha-m-asukhà vedanà

III. Perception Group

(sa¤¤à-kkhandha)

All perceptions are divided into 6 classes: perception of

form, sound, odour, taste, bodily impression, and mental

impression.

IV. Group of Mental Formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha)

This group comprises 50 mental phenomena, of

which 11 are general psychological elements, 25 lofty

(sobhana) qualities, 14 karmically unwholesome

qualities. Cf. Tab. 11.

– 166 –

V. Consciousness Group

(vi¤¤àõa-kkhandha)

The Suttas divide consciousness, according to the

senses, into 6 classes: eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-,

mind-consciousness.

The Abhidhamma and commentaries, however,

distinguish, from the karmical or moral viewpoint,

89 classes of consciousness. Cf. vi¤¤àõa and Tab. 1.

The moral quality of feeling, perception and consciousness

is determined by the mental formations.

khandha-parinibbàna: s. nibbàna.

khandha-santàna: s. santàna.

khanti: ‘patience’, forbearance’, is one of the

10 perfections (pàramã, q.v.).

khayànupassanà: ‘contemplation of dissolution’, is

one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà).

khióóa-padosikà devà: ‘the celestial beings corruptible

by pleasures’, are a class of devas (q.v.) of the

sensuous sphere. They waste their time in merriment,

play and enjoyment, and thereby become thoughtless,

and in their thoughtlessness they fall from that world

(D. 1; 24).

khãõàsava: ‘the one in whom all cankers are destroyed’

is a name for the Arahat, or Holy One; s. àsava.

kicca ‘function’. Regarding the 14 functions of

consciousness, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

– 167 –

kilesa: ‘defilements’, are mind-defiling, unwholesome

qualities. Vis.M. XXII, 49, 65: “There are 10 defilements,

thus called because they are themselves defiled,

and because they defile the mental factors associated

with them. They are: (1) greed (lobha), (2) hate

(dosa), (3) delusion (moha), (4) conceit (màna),

(5) speculative views (diññhi), (6) skeptical doubt

(vicikicchà), (7) mental torpor (thãna), (8) restlessness

(uddhacca); (9) shamelessness (ahirika), (10) lack of

moral dread or unconscientiousness (anottappa).” For

1-3, s. måla; 4, s. màna; 5, s. diññhi; 6-8, s. nãvaraõa;

9 and 10, s. ahirika-anottappa.

The ten are explained in Dhs. 1229f and enumerated

in Vibh. XII. No classification of the k. is found in

the Suttas, though the term occurs quite often in them.

For the related term, upakkilesa (q.v.; ‘impurities’) different

lists are given – (App.).

kilesa-kàma: ‘sensuality considered as defilement’

(s. kilesa) might well be called ‘subjective sensuality’, in

contradistinction to ‘objective sensuality’ (vatthukàma),

i.e. the sensuous objects (kàma-guõa). Cf. kàma.

kilesa-parinibbàna: s. nibbàna (1).

killing: s. karma, kammapatha, sikkhàpada.

ki¤cana: ‘something’, i.e. something evil that sticks or

adheres to character. ‘Evil appendant’, is a name for the

3 unwholesome roots (måla). “There are 3 appendants:

greed (lobha) is an appendant, hate (dosa) is an

appendant, delusion (moha) is an appendant” (D. 33).

‘Freed from appendants’ (aki¤cana) is a term for the

perfectly Holy One (Arahat).

– 168 –

kiriya (or kriya)-citta: ‘functional consciousness’ or

‘karmically inoperative consciousness’, is a name for

such states of consciousness as are neither karmically

wholesome (kusala), nor unwholesome (akusala), nor

karma-results (vipàka); that is, they function independently

of karma. Thus are also called all those worldly

mental states in the Arahat which are accompanied by

2 or 3 noble roots (greedlessness, hatelessness, undeludedness),

being in the Arahat karmically neutral and

corresponding to the karmically wholesome states of a

non-Arahat (s. Tab. 1-8 and 73-89), as well as the rootless

mirth-producing (hasituppàda) mind-consciousness-

element of the Arahat (Tab. 72); further, that

mind-element (mano-dhàtu) which performs the

function of advertence (àvajjana) to the sense object

(Tab. 70), and that mind-consciousness-element

(manovi¤¤àõa-dhàtu) which performs the functions of

deciding (votthapana) and advertence to the mental

object (Tab. 71). The last-named 2 elements, of course,

occur in all beings.

Together with karma-resultant consciousness

(vipàka) it belongs to the group of ‘karmically neutral

consciousness’ (avyàkata). See Tab. I (last column). –

(App.).

knowledge: cf. pa¤¤à, ¤àõa, vijjà, vipassanà, abhi¤¤à.

kolankola: ‘passing from one noble family to another’,

is the name for one of the 3 kinds of Sotàpanna (q.v.).

kriya-citta = kiriya (q.v.).

kukkucca: lit. ‘wrongly-performed-ness’ (ku+krta+ya),

i.e. scruples, remorse, uneasiness of conscience, worry,

– 169 –

is one of the karmically unwholesome (akusala) mental

faculties (Tab. II) which, whenever it arises, is associated

with hateful (discontented) consciousness (Tab. I

and III, 30, 31). It is the ‘repentance over wrong things

done, and right things neglected’ (Com. To A. I). Restlessness

and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca), combined,

are counted as one of the 5 mental hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.).

kuppa-dhamma ‘liable to perturbation’, is one who

has not yet attained full mastery over the absorptions.

In Pug. 3 it is said: “What person is liable to perturbation?

Such a person gains the attainments of the finematerial

and immaterial sphere (s. avacara). But he

does not gain them at his wish, nor without toil and

exertion; and not at his wish as regards place, object

and duration, does he enter them or arise from them.

Thus it is well possible that in case of such a person,

through negligence, the attainments will become perturbed.

This person is liable to perturbation.”

kusala: ‘karmically wholesome’ or ‘profitable’,

salutary, morally good, (skillful) Connotations of the

term, according to Com. (Atthasàlini), are: of good

health, blameless, productive of favourable karmaresult,

skillful. It should be noted that Com. excludes

the meaning ‘skillful’, when the term is applied to states

of consciousness.

It is defined in M. 9 as the 10 wholesome courses of

action (s. kammapatha). In psychological terms, ‘karmically

wholesome’ are all those karmical volitions

(kamma-cetanà) and the consciousness and mental factors

associated therewith, which are accompanied by

– 170 –

2 or 3 wholesome roots (s. måla), i.e. by greedlessness

(alobha) and hatelessness (adosa), and in some cases

also by non-delusion (amoha: wisdom, understanding).

Such states of consciousness are regarded as ‘karmically

wholesome’ as they are causes of favourable karma results

and contain the seeds of a happy destiny or rebirth.

From this explanation, two facts should be noted:

(1) it is volition that makes a state of consciousness, or

an act, ‘good’ or ‘bad’; (2) the moral criterion in Buddhism

is the presence or absence of the 3 wholesome or

moral roots (s. måla).

The above explanations refer to mundane

(lokiya, q.v.) wholesome consciousness. Supermundane

wholesome (lokuttara-kusala) states, i.e. the four paths

of sanctity (s. ariyapuggala), have as results only the

corresponding four fruitions; they do not constitute

karma, nor do they lead to rebirth, and this applies also

to the good actions of an Arahat (Tab. I, 73-80) and his

meditative states (Tab. 1, 81-89), which are all karmically

inoperative (functional; s. kiriya).

Kusala belongs to a threefold division of all consciousness,

as found in the Abhidhamma (Dhs.), into

wholesome (kusala), unwholesome (akusala) and

karmically neutral (avyàkata), which is the first of the

triads (tika) in the Abhidhamma schedule (màtikà);

s. Guide, pp. 4ff., 12ff; Vis.M. XIV, 83ff.

kusala-kammapatha: ‘wholesome course of action’;

s. kammapatha.

kusala-måla: the ‘wholesome roots’ or ‘roots of

wholesome action’, are greedlessness (alobha),

hatelessness (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha;

– 171 –

s. måla). They are identical with kusala-hetu

(s. paccaya, 1).

kusala-vipàka: the (mental) ‘karma-result of

wholesome karma’ (s. karma).

– 172 –

L

lahutà: ‘lightness’, or ‘agility’, may be of 3 kinds: of

corporeality (råpassa lahutà; s. khandha, I), of mental

factors (kàya-lahutà), and of consciousness (cittalahutà).

Cf. Tab. II.

lakkhaõa: ‘characteristics’. For the 3 ch. of existence,

s. ti-lakkhaõa.

law: dhamma (q.v.).

learning, wisdom based on: s. pa¤¤à.

liberality: dàna (q.v.), càga (q.v.).

liberation: s. vimokkha.

life-infatuation: s. mada.

light, perception of: s. àloka-sa¤¤à.

light-kasiõa: s. kasiõa.

lightness (of corporeality, mental factors and

consciousness): lahutà (q.v.).

loathsomeness (of the body): s. asubha, sivathikà,

kàyagatàsati.

lobha: ‘greed’, is one of the 3 unwholesome roots

(måla, q.v.) and a synonym of ràga (q.v.) and

taõhà (q.v.).

lobha-carita: ‘greedy-natured’, s. carita.

– 173 –

lofty consciousness: s. sobhana.

lohita-kasiõa: ‘red-kasiõa’, s. kasiõa.

loka: ‘world’, denotes the 3 spheres of existence comprising

the whole universe, i.e. (1) the sensuous world

(kàma-loka), or the world of the 5 senses; (2) the finematerial

world (råpa-loka), corresponding to the 4 finematerial

absorptions (s. jhàna 1-4); (3) the immaterial

world (aråpa-loka), corresponding to the 4 immaterial

absorptions (s. jhàna, 5-8).

The sensuous world comprises the hells (niraya),

the animal kingdom (tiracchàna-yoni), the ghost-realm

(peta-loka), the demon world (asura-nikàya), the

human world (manussa-loka) and the 6 lower celestial

worlds (s. deva I). In the fine-material world (s. deva II)

still exist the faculties of seeing and hearing, which,

together with the other sense faculties, are temporarily

suspended in the 4 absorptions. In the immaterial

world (s. deva III) there is no corporeality whatsoever,

only the four mental groups (s. khandha) exist there.

Though the term loka is not applied in the Suttas to

those 3 worlds, but only the term bhava, ‘existence’

(e.g. M. 43), there is no doubt that the teaching about

the 3 worlds belongs to the earliest, i.e. sutta-period, of

the Buddhist scriptures, as many relevant passages

show.

loka-dhamma: ‘worldly conditions’. “Eight things are

called worldly conditions, since they arise in connection

with worldly life, namely: gain and loss, honour

and dishonour, happiness and misery, praise and

blame” (Vis.M. XXII). Cf. also A. VIII, 5.

– 174 –

lokiya: ‘mundane’, are all those states of consciousness

and mental factors – arising in the worldling, as well as

in the Noble One – which are not associated with the

supermundane (lokuttara; s. the foll.) paths and fruitions

of sotàpatti, etc. See ariyapuggala, A.

lokuttara: ‘supermundane’, is a term for the 4 paths

and 4 fruitions of sotàpatti, etc. (s. ariya-puggala), with

Nibbàna as ninth. Hence one speaks of ‘9 supermundane

things’ (nava-lokuttara-dhamma). Cf. prec.

loving-kindness: mettà; s. brahmavihàra.

lower fetters, the 5: s. saüyojana.

lower worlds, the 4: apàya (q.v.).

low speech: tiracchàna-kathà (q.v.).

lust: s. ràga.

– 175 –

M

macchariya: ‘stinginess’, avarice. “There are 5 kinds of

stinginess, O monks; regarding the dwelling place,

regarding families, regarding gain, regarding recognition,

regarding mental things’ (A. IX, 49; Pug. 56).

mada: ‘infatuation’. “Infatuation is of 3 kinds: youthinfatuation,

health-infatuation, life-infatuation” (D. 33).

“Infatuated by youth-infatuation, by health-infatuation

and by life-infatuation, the ignorant worldling pursues

an evil course in bodily actions, speech and thought,

and thereby, at the dissolution of the body, after death,

passes to a lower world, to a woeful course of existence,

to a state of suffering and hell” (A. III, 39).

magga: ‘path’. 1. For the 4 supermundane paths

(lokuttara-magga), s. ariya-puggala – 2. The Eightfold

Path (aññhangika-magga) is the path leading to the

extinction of suffering, i.e. the last of the 4 Noble

Truths (sacca, q.v.), namely:

1. Right view (sammà-diññhi) III. Wisdom

2. Right thought (sammà-sankappa) (pa¤¤à)

3. Right speech (sammà-vàcà)

4. Right bodily action (sammà-kammanta) I. Morality

5. Right livelihood (sammà-àjãva) (sãla)

6. Right effort (sammà-vàyàma)

7. Right mindfulness (sammà-sati) II. Concentration

8. Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi) (samàdhi)

– 176 –

1. Right view or right understanding (sammà-diññhi)

is the understanding of the 4 Noble Truths about the

universality of suffering (unsatisfactoriness), of its origin,

its cessation, and the path leading to that cessation.

– See the Discourse on ‘Right Understanding’ (M. 9, tr.

and Com. in ‘R. Und.’).

2. Right thought (sammà-sankappa): thoughts free

from sensuous desire, from ill-will, and cruelty.

3. Right speech (sammà-vàcà): abstaining from

lying, tale-bearing, harsh language, and foolish babble.

4 Right bodily action (sammà-kammanta): abstaining

from killing, stealing, and unlawful sexual intercourse.

5. Right livelihood (sammà-àjãva): abstaining from

a livelihood that brings harm to other beings, such as

trading in arms, in living beings, intoxicating drinks,

poison; slaughtering, fishing, soldiering, deceit, treachery

soothsaying, trickery, usury, etc.

6. Right effort (sammà-vàyàma): the effort of

avoiding or overcoming evil and unwholesome things,

and of developing and maintaining wholesome things

(s. padhàna).

7. Right mindfulness (sammà-sati): mindfulness

and awareness in contemplating body, feelings, mind,

and mind-objects (s. sati, satipaññhàna).

8. Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi):

concentration of mind associated with wholesome

– 177 –

(kusala) consciousness, which eventually may reach the

absorptions (jhàna, q.v.). Cf. samàdhi.

There are to be distinguished 2 kinds of concentration,

mundane (lokiya) and supermundane (lokuttara)

concentration. The latter is associated with those states

of consciousness known as the 4 supermundane paths

and fruitions (s. ariya-puggala). As it is said in M. 117:

“I tell you, O monks, there are 2 kinds of right view:

the understanding that it is good to give alms and offerings,

that both good and evil actions will bear fruit and

will be followed by results…. This, O monks, is a view

which, though still subject to the cankers, is meritorious,

yields worldly fruits, and brings good results. But

whatever there is of wisdom, of penetration, of right

view conjoined with the path – the holy path being

pursued, this is called the supermundane right view

(lokuttara-sammà-diññhi), which is not of the world, but

which is supermundane and conjoined with the path.”

In a similar way the remaining links of the path are

to be understood.

As many of those who have written about the Eightfold

Path have misunderstood its true nature, it is therefore

appropriate to add here a few elucidating remarks

about it, as this path is fundamental for the understanding

and practice of the Buddha’s teaching.

First of all, the figurative expression ‘path’ should

not be interpreted to mean that one has to advance

step by step in the sequence of the enumeration until,

after successively passing through all the eight stages,

– 178 –

one finally may reach one’s destination, Nibbàna. If this

really were the case, one should have realized, first of

all, right view and penetration of the truth, even before

one could hope to proceed to the next steps, right

thought and right speech; and each preceding stage

would be the indispensable foundation and condition

for each succeeding stage. In reality, however, the links

3-5 constituting moral training (sãla), are the first

3 links to be cultivated, then the links 6-8 constituting

mental training (samàdhi), and at last right view, etc.

constituting wisdom (pa¤¤à).

It is, however, true that a really unshakable and

safe foundation to the path is provided only by right

view which, starting from the tiniest germ of faith and

knowledge, gradually, step by step, develops into penetrating

insight (vipassanà) and thus forms the immediate

condition for the entrance into the 4 supermundane

paths and fruits of holiness, and for the realization of

Nibbàna. Only with regard to this highest form of

supermundane insight, may we indeed say that all the

remaining links of the path are nothing but the outcome

and the accompaniments of right view.

Regarding the mundane (lokiya) eightfold path,

however, its links may arise without the first link, right

view.

Here it must also be emphasized that the links of

the path not only do not arise one after the other, as

already indicated, but also that they, at least in part,

arise simultaneously as inseparably associated mental

factors in one and the same state of consciousness.

Thus, for instance, under all circumstances at least

4 links are inseparably bound up with any karmically

– 179 –

wholesome consciousness, namely 2, 6, 7 and 8,

i.e. right thought, right effort, right mindfulness and

right concentration (M. 117), so that as soon as any

one of these links arises, the three others also do so. On

the other hand, right view is not necessarily present in

every wholesome state of consciousness.

Magga is one of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya 18).

Literature: The Noble Eightfold Path and its Factors

Explained, by Ledi Sayadaw (Wheel 245/247). –

The Buddha’s Ancient Path, by Piyadassi Thera (BPS).-

The Noble Eightfold Path, by Bhikkhu Bodhi

(Wheel 308/311).

maggàmagga-¤àõadassana-visuddhi: ‘purification

by knowledge of what is path and not-path’, is one of

the 7 stages of purification (visuddhi V, q.v.).

magga-paccaya: ‘path as a condition’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

magical powers: s. iddhi; abhi¤¤à (1).

mahà-bhåta: the 4 ‘primary elements’, is another

name for the 4 elements (dhàtu) underlying all corporeality;

s. dhàtu.

mahà-brahmàno: the ‘great gods’, are a class of

heavenly beings in the fine-material world; s. deva, II.

mahaggata: lit., ‘grown great’, i.e. ‘developed’, exalted,

supernormal. As mahaggata-citta, it is the state of

‘developed consciousness’, attained in the fine-material

and immaterial absorptions (s. jhàna); it is mentioned

in the mind-contemplation of the Satipaññhàna Sutta

(M. 10). – As mahaggatàrammaõa, it is the ‘developed

– 180 –

mental object’ of those absorptions and is mentioned in

the ‘object triad’ of the Abhidhamma schedule and

Dhs. (s. Guide, p. 6).

mahàpurisa-vitakka: the 8 ‘thoughts of a great man’,

are described in A. VIII, 30, and D. 34.

mahà-vipassanà: the 18 ‘chief kinds of insight’;

s. vipassanà.

maintain: effort to maintain wholesome things;

s. padhàna.

majjhimà-pañipadà: ‘Middle Path’, is the Noble Eightfold

Path which, by avoiding the two extremes of sensual

lust and self-torment, leads to enlightenment and

deliverance from suffering.

To give oneself up to indulgence in sensual pleasure

(kàma-sukha), the base, common, vulgar, unholy,

unprofitable; and also to give oneself up to self-torment

(atta-kilamatha), the painful, unholy, unprofitable,

both these two extremes the Perfect One has

avoided and has found the Middle Path (s. magga),

which causes one both to see and to know, and which

leads to peace, to discernment, to enlightenment, to

Nibbàna. It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the way that

leads to the extinction of suffering, namely: right

understanding, right thought, right speech, right bodily

action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,

and right concentration” (S. LVI, 11).

mala: ‘stains’, is a name for the 3 karmically unwholesome

roots (akusala-måla); greed, hate and delusion

(lobha, dosa, moha).

– 181 –

màna: ‘conceit’, pride, is one of the 10 fetters binding

to existence (s. saüyojana). It vanishes completely only

at the entrance to Arahatship, or Holiness (cf. asmimàna).

It is further one of the proclivities (s. anusaya)

and defilements (s. kilesa).

The (equality-) conceit (màna), the inferiorityconceit

(omàna) and the superiority-conceit (atimàna):

this threefold conceit should be overcome. For, after

overcoming this threefold conceit, the monk, through

the full penetration of conceit, is said to have put an

end suffering” (A. VI, 49).

“Those ascetics and brahman priests who, relying

on this impermanent, miserable and transitory nature

of corporeality, feelings, perceptions, mental formations

and consciousness, fancy: ‘Better am I’, or ‘Equal

am I’, or ‘Worse am I’, all these imagine thus through

not understanding reality” (S. XXII, 49).

In reality no ego-entity is to be found. Cf. anattà.

manasikàra: ‘attention’, ‘mental advertence’,

‘reflection’.

1. As a psychological term, attention belongs to the

formation-group (sankhàra-kkhandha; s. Tab. II) and is

one of the 7 mental factors (cetasika) that are inseparably

associated with all states of consciousness

(s. cetanà). In M. 9, it is given as one of the factors

representative of mind (nàma) It is the mind’s first

‘confrontation with an object’ and ‘binds the associated

mental factors to the object.’ It is, therefore, the prominent

factor in two specific classes of consciousness:

i.e. ‘advertence (àvajjana, q.v.) at the five sense-doors’

– 182 –

(Tab. I, 70) and at the mind-door (Tab. I, 71). These

two states of consciousness, breaking through the subconscious

life-continuum (bhavanga), form the first

stage in the perceptual process (citta-vãthi; s. vi¤¤àõakicca).