A

abandonment, contemplation of:

pañinissaggànupassanà, is one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight; s. vipassanà, further ànàpànasati (16).

abbhokàsik’anga: ‘living in the open air’, is one of the

ascetic means to purification (dhutanga, q.v.).

aberration (in morality and understanding): s. vipatti.

abhabbàgamana: ‘incapable of progressing’. “Those

beings who are obstructed by their evil actions

(kamma, s. karma), by their defilements (kilesa, q.v.),

by the result of their evil actions (s. vipàka), or who are

devoid of faith, energy and knowledge, and unable to

enter the right path and reach perfection in wholesome

things, all those are said to be incapable of progressing”

(Pug. 13). According to Commentary the ‘evil actions’

denote the 5 heinous deeds with immediate result

(ànantarika-kamma, q.v.), whilst the ‘defilements’ refer

to the ‘evil views with fixed destiny’ (niyata-micchàdiññhi;

s. diññhi).

àbhassara: The ‘Radiant Ones’, are a class of heavenly

beings of the fine-material world (råpa-loka); cf. deva.

abhibhàyatana: the 8 ‘stages of mastery’, are powers

to be obtained by means of the kasina-exercises

– 14 –

(s. kasiõa). In the Com. to M. 77, where àyatana is

explained by ‘means’ (kàraõa) it is said: “The

abhibhàyatana through their counteracting may master

(suppress) the adverse states, and by means of higher

knowledge they may master the objects of mind.” They

are means for transcending the sensuous sphere.

The stereotype text often met with in the Suttas

(e.g. D. 11, 33; M. 77; A. VIII, 65; X, 29) is as follows:

(1) “Perceiving (blue…, red…, yellow…, white)

forms on one’s own body, one sees forms externally

small ones, beautiful or ugly; and in mastering these

one understands: ‘I know, I understand.’ This is the first

stage of mastery.

(2) “Perceiving forms on one’s own body, one sees

forms externally, large ones…. This is the second stage

of mastery.

(3) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, small ones…. This is the third

stage of mastery.

(4) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, large ones…. This is the fourth

stage of mastery.

(5) “Not perceiving forms on one’s own body, one

sees forms externally, blue forms, forms of blue color,

blue appearance, blue lustre, and mastering these one

understands: ‘I know, I understand. This is the fifth

stage of mastery.”

(6-8) The same is repeated with yellow, red and

white forms.

– 15 –

As preparatory kasina-object for the 1st and 2nd

exercise one should choose on one’s own body a small

or a large spot, beautiful or ugly, and thereon one

should concentrate one’s full undivided attention, so

that this object after a while reappears as mental reflex

or image (nimitta, q.v.) and, as it were, as something

external. Such an exercise, though appearing quite

mechanical, if properly carried out will bring about a

high degree of mental concentration and entrance into

the 4 absorptions (jhàna, q.v.). In the 3rd and 4th

exercises the monk by an external kasina-object gains

the mental reflexes and absorptions. As objects of the

remaining exercises, perfectly clear and radiant colors

should be chosen, flowers, cloth, etc.

A kasina-object of small size is said to be suitable

for a mentally unsteady nature, one of a large size for a

dull nature, a beautiful object for an angry nature, an

ugly one for a lustful nature.

In Vis.M. V it is said: “By means of the earth-kasina

one succeeds in reaching the stage of mastery with

regard to small and large objects…. By means of the

blue-kasina one succeeds in causing blue forms to

appear, in producing darkness, in reaching the stage of

mastery with regard to beautiful and ugly colors, in

reaching ‘deliverance through the beautiful’, etc.”

(cf. vimokkha II, 3). The same is also said with regard to

the other color kasinas.

abhijjhà: ‘covetousness’ is a synonym of lobha

(s. måla) and taõhà (q.v.) and is the 8th link of the

unwholesome courses of action (s. kamma-patha, I).

abhinibbatti: a Sutta term for rebirth; s. punabbhava.

– 16 –

abhi¤¤à: The 6 ‘higher powers’, or supernormal

knowledge’s, consist of 5 mundane (lokiya, q.v.)

powers attainable through the utmost perfection in

mental concentration (samàdhi, q.v.) and one

supermundane (lokuttara, q.v.) power attainable

through penetrating insight (vipassanà, q.v.),

i.e. extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya; s. àùava), in

other words, realization of Arahatship or Holiness.

They are: (1) magical powers (iddhi-vidhà), (2) divine

ear (dibba-sota), (3) penetration of the minds of others

(ceto-pariya-¤àõa), (4) remembrance of former existences

(pubbe-nivàsànussati), (5) divine eye (dibbacakkhu),

(6) extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya).

The stereotype text met with in all the 4 Suttacollections

(e.g. D. 34; M. 4, 6, 77; A. III, 99; V, 23;

S. XV, 9 and Pug. 271, 239) is as follows:

(1) “Now, O Bhikkhus, the monk enjoys the various

magical powers (iddhi-vidhà), such as being one he becomes

manifold, and having become manifold he again

becomes one. He appears and disappears. Without being

obstructed he passes through walls and mountains,

just as if through the air. In the earth he dives and rises

up again, just as if in the water. He walks on water

without sinking, just as if on the earth. Cross-legged he

floats through the air, just like a winged bird. With his

hand he touches the sun and moon, these so mighty

ones, so powerful ones. Even up to the Brahma-world

he has mastery over his body.

(2) “With the divine ear (dibba-sota) he hears

sounds both heavenly and human, far and near.

(3) “He knows the minds of other beings (parassa

ceto-pariya-¤àõa), of other persons, by penetrating

– 17 –

them with his own mind. He knows the greedy mind as

greedy and the not-greedy one as not greedy; knows

the hating mind as hating and the not-hating one as not

hating; knows the deluded mind as deluded and the

not-deluded one as not deluded; knows the shrunken

mind and the distracted one, the developed mind and

the undeveloped one, the surpassable mind and the

unsurpassable one, the concentrated mind and the unconcentrated

one, the freed mind and the unfreed one.

(4) “He remembers manifold former existences

(pubbe-nivàsànussati), such as one birth, two, three,

four and five births… hundred thousand births;

remembers many formations and dissolutions of

worlds: ‘There I was, such name I had… and vanishing

from there I entered into existence somewhere else…

and vanishing from there I again reappeared here.’

Thus he remembers, always together with the marks

and peculiarities, many a former existence.

(5) “With the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu = yathàkammåpaga-¤

àõa or cutåpapàta-¤àõa), the pure one,

he sees beings vanishing and reappearing, low and

noble ones, beautiful and ugly ones, sees how beings

are reappearing according to their deeds (s. karma):

‘These beings, indeed, followed evil ways in bodily

actions, words and thoughts, insulted the noble ones,

held evil views, and according to their evil views they

acted. At the dissolution of their body, after death, they

have appeared in lower worlds, in painful states of

existence, in the world of suffering, in hell. Those other

beings, however, are endowed with good action… have

appeared in happy state of existence, in a heavenly

world.

– 18 –

(6) “Through the extinction of all cankers

(àsavakkhaya) even in this very life he enters into the

possession of deliverance of mind, deliverance through

wisdom, after having himself understood and realized it.’’

4-6 appear frequently under the name of the

‘threefold (higher) knowledge’ (te-vijjà, q.v.). They are,

however, not a necessary condition for the attainment

of sainthood (arahatta), i.e. of the sixth abhi¤¤à.

Vis.M. XI-XIII gives a detailed explanation of the

5 mundane higher powers, together with the method of

attaining them.

In connection with the 4 kinds of progress

(s. pañipadà), abhi¤¤à means the ‘comprehension’

achieved on attainment of the paths and fruitions.

abhisamàcàrika-sãla: ‘morality consisting in good

behavior’, relates to the external duties of a monk such

as towards his superior, etc. “abhisamàcàrika-sãla is a

name for those moral rules other than the 8 ending

with right livelihood (i.e. 4-fold right speech, 3-fold

right action and right livelihood, as in the Eightfold

Path) (Vis.M. I; s. sacca IV, 3-5). “Impossible is it,

O monks, that without having fulfilled the law of good

behavior, a monk could fulfill the law of genuine pure

conduct” (A.V, 21). Cf. àdibrahmacariyakasãla.

abhisamaya: ‘truth-realization’, is the full and direct

grasp of the Four Noble Truths by the Stream-winner

(Sotàpanna; s. ariya-puggala). In the Com. the term is

represented by ‘penetration’ (pañivedha, q.v.). Frequently

occurring as dhammàbhisamaya, ‘realization of the

– 19 –

doctrine’ Cf. S. XIII (Abhisamaya Saüyutta) and

Pts.M. (Abhisamaya Kathà).

abhisankhàra: identical with the 2nd link of the

pañicca-samuppàda (q.v.), sankhàra (q.v.; under I, 1) or

karma-formations.

ability to acquire insight: cf. ugghañita¤¤å,

vipacita¤¤å, neyya.

abodes: vihàra (q.v.). The 4 Divine a.: brahmavihàra

(q.v.). The 9 a. of beings: sattàvàsa (q.v.).

absence: natthi-paccaya, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

absorption: s. jhàna.

abstentions, the 3: virati (q.v.).

access, Moment of: s. javana.

access-concentration: s. samàdhi.

accumulation (of Karma): àyåhana (q.v.).

àciõõaka-kamma: habitual karma; s. karma.

acinteyya: lit. ‘That which cannot or should not be

thought, the unthinkable, incomprehensible, impenetrable,

that which transcends the limits of thinking and

over which therefore one should not ponder. These

4 unthinkables are: the sphere of a Buddha (buddhavisaya),

of the meditative absorptions (jhàna-visaya), of

karma-result (kamma-vipàka), and brooding over the

world (loka-cintà), especially over an absolute first

beginning of it (s. A. IV, 77).

– 20 –

“Therefore, O monks, do not brood over the world

as to whether it is eternal or temporal, limited or endless….

Such brooding, O monks, is senseless, has nothing

to do with genuine pure conduct (s. àdibrahmacariyaka-

sãla), does not lead to aversion, detachment,

extinction, nor to peace, to full comprehension,

enlightenment and Nibbàna, etc.” (S.LVI, 41).

acquired image (during concentration): s. nimitta,

samàdhi, kasiõa.

action: karma (q.v.) – Right bodily a.: sammàkammanta;

s. sacca (IV.4)

adaptability (of body, mental factors and

consciousness): kamma¤¤atà (q.v.); cf. khandha

(corporeality) and Tab. II.

adaptation-knowledge: anuloma-¤àõa (q.v.).

adherence: paràmàsa (q.v.)

adherent: upàsaka (q.v.)

adhicitta-sikkhà: ‘training in higher mentality’;

s. sikkhà.

adhimokkha: ‘determination’, decision, resolve: is one

of the mental concomitants (cetasika) and belongs to

the group of mental formations (sankhàra-kkhandha).

In M. 111, it is mentioned together with other mental

concomitants. See Tab. II, III.

adhipa¤¤à-dhamma-vipassanà: ‘insight into things

based on higher wisdom’, is one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight (s. vipassanà).

– 21 –

adhipati-paccaya: ‘predominance-condition’ is one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.); if developed, it is considered

as the fourfold road to power (iddhi-pàda. q.v.).

adhisãla-sikkhà: ‘training in higher morality’: s. sikkhà.

adhiññhàna, as a doctrinal term, occurs chiefly in two

meanings:

1. ‘Foundation’: four ‘foundations’ of an Arahat’s

mentality, mentioned and explained in M. 140: the

foundation of wisdom (pa¤¤à), of truthfulness (sacca)

of liberality (càga) and of peace (upasama). See also

D. 33 and Com.

2. ‘Determination’, resolution, in: adhiññhàna-iddhi,

‘magical power of determination’ (s. iddhi); adhiññhànapàramã,

‘perfection of resolution’ (s. pàramã).

àdibrahmacariyaka-sãla: ‘morality of genuine pure

conduct’, consists in right speech, right bodily action

and right livelihood, forming the 3rd, 4th and 5th links

of the Eightfold Path (s. sacca, IV.3, 4, 5); cf. Vis.M. I. In

A. II, 86 it is said:

“With regard to those moral states connected with

and corresponding to the genuine pure conduct, he is

morally strong, morally firm and trains himself in the

moral rules taken upon himself. After overcoming the

3 fetters (ego-belief. skeptic doubt and attachment to

mere rules and ritual; s. saüyojana) he becomes one

who will be ‘reborn seven times at the utmost’

(s. Sotàpanna) and after only seven times more wandering

through this round of rebirths amongst men and

heavenly beings, he will put an end to suffering.”

– 22 –

àdãnavànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in

contemplation of misery’, is one of the 8 kinds of insight

(vipassanà) that form the ‘purification of the knowledge

and vision of the path-progress (s. visuddhi, VI. 4). It is

further one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(s. vipassanà).

adosa: ‘hatelessness, is one of the 3 wholesome roots

(måla, q.v.).

adukkha-m-asukhà vedanà: ‘feeling which is neither

painful nor joyful’, i.e. indifferent feeling; s. khandha,

vedanà.

advertence (of mind to the object): àvajjana, is one of

the functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca, q.v.).

Cf. manasikàra.

æon: kappa (q.v.).

agati: the 4 ‘wrong paths’ are: the path of greed

(chanda), of hate, of delusion, of cowardice (bhaya).

“One who is freed from evil impulses is no longer liable

to take the wrong path of greed, etc.’’ (A. IV, 17; IX, 7).

age, Old: jarà (q.v.).

aggregates: khandha (q.v.).

agility: lahutà (q.v.).

àhàra: ‘nutriment’, ‘food’, is used in the concrete sense

as material food and as such it belongs to derived corporeality

(s. khandha, Summary I.). In the figurative

sense, as ‘foundation’ or condition, it is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) and is used to denote

– 23 –

4 kinds of nutriment, which are material and mental:

1. material food (kabalinkàràhàra), 2. (sensorial and

mental) impression (phassa), 3. mental volition (manosa¤

cetanà), 4. consciousness (vi¤¤àõa).

1. Material food feeds the eightfold corporeality

having nutrient essence as its 8th factor (i.e. the solid,

liquid, heat, motion, color, odour, the tastable and

nutrient essence; s. råpa-kalàpa). 2. Sensorial and

mental impression is a condition for the 3 kinds of

feeling (agreeable, disagreeable and indifferent);

s. pañiccasamuppàda (6). 3. Mental volition

(= karma, q.v.) feeds rebirth; s. pañiccasamuppàda (2).

4. Consciousness feeds mind and corporeality; (nàmaråpa;

ib., 2) at the moment of conception” (Vis.M. XI).

Literature (on the 4 Nutriments): M. 9 & Com. (tr. in

‘R. Und.’), M 38; S. XII, 11, 63, 64 – The Four Nutriments of

Life, Selected texts & Com. (Wheel 105/106).

àhàra-ja (or-samu¤¤hàna) – råpa: ‘Food-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

àhàre pañikkåla-sa¤¤à: ‘reflection on the loathsomeness

of food’, fully described in Vis.M. XI, l.

ahetuka-citta: s. hetu.

ahetuka-diññhi: ‘view of uncausedness’ (of existence);

s. diññhi.

ahetu-pañisandhika: s. pañisandhi.

ahiüsà: s. avihiüsà.

– 24 –

ahirika-anottappa: ‘lack of moral shame and dread’,

are two of the 4 unwholesome factors associated with

all karmically unwholesome states of consciousness,

the two others being restlessness (uddhacca) and delusion

(moha). Cf. Tab. II.

“There are two sinister things, namely, lack of moral

shame and dread, etc.” (A. II, 6). “Not to be ashamed

of what one should be ashamed of; not to be ashamed

of evil, unwholesome things: this is called lack of moral

shame” (Pug. 59). “Not to dread what one should

dread… this is called lack of moral dread (Pug. 60).

ahosi-kamma: ‘ineffective karma’; s. karma.

àjãva: ‘livelihood’. About right and wrong livelihood.,

s. sacca (IV. 5) and micchà-magga (5).

àjãva-pàrisuddhi-sãla: ‘morality consisting in purification

of livelihood’, is one of the 4 kinds of perfect

morality; s. sãla.

akaniññha: the ‘Great Ones’, i.e. ‘Highest Gods’, are the

inhabitants of the 5th and highest heaven of the Pure

Abodes (suddhàvàsa, q.v.); cf. avacara, deva (II)

Anàgàmã.

àkàsa: ‘space’, is, according to Com., of two kinds:

1. limited space (paricchinnàkàsa or paricchedàkàsa),

2. endless space (anantàkàsa), i.e. cosmic space.

1. Limited space, under the name of àkàsa-dhàtu

(space element), belongs to derived corporeality

(s. khandha, Summary I; Dhs. 638) and to a sixfold

classification of elements (s. dhàtu; M 112, 115, 140).

– 25 –

It is also an object of kasina (q.v.) meditation. It is

defined as follows: “The space element has the characteristic

of delimiting matter. Its function is to indicate

the boundaries of matter. It is manifested as the confines

of matter; or its manifestation consists in being

untouched (by the 4 great elements), and in holes and

apertures. Its proximate cause is the matter delimited. It

is on account of the space element that one can say of

material things delimited that ‘this is above. below,

around that’ “ (Vis.M. XIV, 63).

2. Endless space is called in Atthasàlini ajatàkàsa,

‘unentangled’, i.e. unobstructed or empty space. It is the

object of the first immaterial absorption (s. jhàna), the

sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana). According

to Abhidhamma philosophy, endless space has no

objective reality (being purely conceptual), which is

indicated by the fact that it is not included in the triad

of the wholesome (kusalatika), which comprises the

entire reality. Later Buddhist schools have regarded it

as one of several unconditioned or uncreated states

(asankhata dharma) – a view that is rejected in

Kath. (s. Guide. p. 70). Theravàda Buddhism recognizes

only Nibbàna as an unconditioned element (asankhatadhàtu:

s. Dhs. 1084).

àkàsa dhàtu: ‘space element’; see above and dhàtu.

àkàsa-kasiõa ‘space-kasina exercise’; s. kasiõa.

àkàsàna¤càyatana: ‘sphere of boundless space’, is

identical with the 1st absorption in the immaterial

sphere; s. jhàna (6).

àki¤ca¤¤a-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

– 26 –

àki¤ca¤¤àyatana: s. jhàna (7).

akiriya-diññhi: view of the inefficacy of action’;

s. diññhi.

akuppà-ceto-vimutti: cf. ceto-vimutti.

akuppa-dhamma: ‘unshakable’, is one who has

attained full mastery over the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.).

In Pug. 4 it is said:

‘What person is unshakable? If a person gains the

meditative attainments of the fine-material and immaterial

sphere (råpàvacara-aråpàvacara); and he gains

them at his wish, without toil and exertion; and according

to his wish, as regards place, object and duration,

enters them or arises from them, then it is impossible

that in such a person the attainments may become

shaken through negligence. This person is unshakable.”

akusala: ‘unwholesome’, are all those karmic volitions

(kamma-cetanà; s. cetanà) and the consciousness and

mental concomitants associated therewith, which are

accompanied either by greed (lobha) or hate (dosa) or

merely delusion (moha); and all these phenomena are

causes of unfavourable karma-results and contain the

seeds of unhappy destiny or rebirth. Cf. karma, pañiccasamuppàda

(1), Tab. II.

akusala-sàdhàrana-cetasika: ‘general unwholesome

mental factors associated with all unwholesome

actions’ (volitions), are four: (1) lack of moral shame

(ahirika), (2) lack of moral dread (anottappa),

(3) restlessness (uddhacca), (4) delusion (moha). For

– 27 –

(1) and (2) s. ahirika-anottappa, for (3) s. nãvaraõa, for

(4) måla. (App.).

The corresponding term in the field of wholesome

consciousness is sobhana-sàdhàrana-cetasika

(s. sobhana).

akusala-vitakka: ‘unwholesome thoughts’ as defined

under akusala (q.v.). In M. 20, five methods of overcoming

them are given: by changing the object, thinking

of the evil results, paying no attention, analyzing,

suppressing.

Tr. in The Removal of Distracting Thoughts (Wheel 21).

alcohol prohibition: s. suràmeraya-majjappamàdaññhànà

etc.

alms, vow of going for; or to do so without omitting

any house: s. dhutanga, 3, 4.

alms-bowl eater, the practice of the: s. dhutanga.

alms-giving: dàna (q.v.).

alms-goer, the practice of the; s. dhutanga.

alobha: ‘greedlessness’, is one of the 3 karmically

wholesome roots (måla, q.v.).

àloka-kasiõa: ‘light-kasina-exercise’; s. kasiõa.

àloka-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of light’. The recurring canonical

passage reads: “Here the monk contemplates the

perception of light. He fixes his-mind to the perception

of the day; as at day-time so at night, and as at night, so

in the day. In this way, with a mind clear and un-

28 –

clouded, he develops a stage of mind that is full of

brightness.” It is one of the methods of overcoming

drowsiness, recommended by the Buddha to Mahà-

Moggallàna (A. VII, 58). According to D. 33, it is

conducive to the development of ‘knowledge and

vision’ (s. visuddhi), and it is said to be helpful to the

attainment of the ‘divine eye’ (s. abhi¤¤à).

altruistic joy: mudità, is one of the 4 sublime abodes

(brahmavihàra, q.v.).

amata (Sanskrit amçta; √ mç to die; = Gr. ambrosia):

‘Deathlessness’ according to popular belief also the

gods’ drink conferring immortality, is a name for

Nibbàna (s. Nibbàna), the final liberation from the

wheel of rebirths, and therefore also from the everrepeated

deaths.

amoha: ‘non-delusion’, wisdom, is one of the

3 karmically wholesome roots (måla, q.v.).

anabhijjhà: ‘freedom from covetousness’,

unselfishness; s. kammapatha (II. 8).

anabhirati-sa¤¤à: s. sabba-loke anabhirati-s.

Anàgàmã: the ‘Non-Returner’, is a noble disciple

(ariya-puggala, q.v.) on the 3rd stage of holiness. There

are 5 classes of Non-Returners, as it is said

(e.g. Pug. 42-46):

“A being, through the disappearing of the 5 lower

fetters (saüyojana, q.v.), reappears in a higher world

(amongst the devas of the Pure Abodes, suddhàvàsa,

q.v.), and without returning from that world (into

the sensuous sphere) he there reaches Nibbàna.

– 29 –

(1) “He may, immediately after appearing there (in

the Pure Abodes) or without having gone beyond half

of the life-time, attain the holy path for the overcoming

of the higher fetters. Such a being is called ‘one who

reaches Nibbàna within the first half of the life’ (antaràparinibbàyã).

(2) “Or, whilst living beyond half of the lifetime, or

at the moment of death, he attains the holy path for the

overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is called

‘one who reaches Nibbàna after crossing half the lifetime’

(upahacca-parinibbàyã).

(3) “Or, with exertion he attains the holy path for

the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who reaches Nibbàna with exertion’

(sasankhàra-parinibbàyã).

(4) “Or, without exertion he attains the holy path

for the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who reaches Nibbàna without exertion’

(asankhàra-parinibbàyã).

(5) “Or, after vanishing from the heaven of the

Aviha-gods (s. suddhàvàsa), he appears in the heaven of

the unworried (atappa) gods. After vanishing from

there he appears in the heaven of the clearly-visible

(sudassa) gods, from there in the heaven of the clearvisioned

(sudassã) gods, from there in the heaven of the

highest (akaniññha) gods. There he attains the holy path

for the overcoming of the higher fetters. Such a being is

called ‘one who passes up-stream to the highest gods’

(uddhamsota-akaniññha-gàmã).”

analysis of the 4 elements: dhàtu-vavatthàna (q.v.).

analytical doctrine: vibhajja-vàda (q.v.).

– 30 –

analytical knowledge, the 4 kinds of:

pañisambhidà (q.v.).

ana¤¤àta¤-¤assàmãt’indriya: is one of the

3 supermundane senses or faculties; s. indriya (20).

anantara-paccaya: ‘proximity’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

ànantarika-kamma: the 5 heinous ‘actions with

immediate destiny’ are: parricide, matricide, killing an

Arahat (Saint), wounding a Buddha, creating schism in

the monks’ Order. In A.V., 129 it is said:

“There are 5 irascible and incurable men destined

to the lower world and to hell, namely: the parricide,”

etc. About the 5th see A. X., 35, 38. With regard

to the first crime, it is said in D. 2 that if King Ajàtasattu

had not deprived his father of life, he would have

reached entrance into the path of Stream-entry (App.).

ànantariya: the ‘Immediacy’, is a name for that

concentration of mind which is associated with such

insight (vipassanà, q.v.) as is present in any one of the

4 kinds of supermundane path consciousness (s. ariyapuggala),

and which therefore is the cause of the

immediately following consciousness as its result or

‘fruition’ (phala, q.v.). According to the Abhidhamma,

the path (of the Sotàpanna, etc.) is generated by the

insight into the impermanence, misery and impersonality

of existence, flashing up at that very moment and

transforming and ennobling one’s nature forever.

– 31 –

It is mentioned under the name of ànantarikasamàdhi

in the Ratana Sutta (Sn. v. 22) and in Pts.M. 1,

¥àõakathà.

ànàpàna-sati: ‘mindfulness on in-and-out-breathing’, is

one of the most important exercises for reaching mental

concentration and the 4 absorptions (jhàna, q.v.).

In the Satipaññhàna Sutta (M. 10, D. 22) and elsewhere,

4 methods of practice are given, which may also

serve as basis for insight meditation. The ‘Discourse on

Mindfulness of Breathing’ (ânàpànasati Sutta, M. 118)

and other texts have 16 methods of practice, which

divide into 4 groups of four. The first three apply to

both tranquillity (samatha, q.v.) and insight-meditation,

while the fourth refers to pure insight practice only.

The second and the third group require the attainment

of the absorptions.

“With attentive mind he breathes in, with attentive

mind he breathes out.

I. (1) “When making a long inhalation he knows:

‘I make a long inhalation’; when making a long

exhalation he knows: ‘I make a long exhalation.’

(2) “When making a short inhalation he knows:

‘I make a short inhalation’; when making a short

exhalation he knows: ‘I make a short exhalation.’

(3) “ ‘Clearly perceiving the entire (breath-) body

I will breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘clearly perceiving

the entire (breath-) body I will breathe out,’

thus he trains himself.

(4) “ ‘Calming this bodily function I will breathe in,’

thus he trains himself; ‘calming this bodily function

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

– 32 –

II. (5) “ ‘Feeling rapture (pãti) I will breathe in,’ thus

he trains himself; ‘feeling rapture I will breathe out,’

thus he trains himself.

(6) “ ‘Feeling joy I will breathe in,’ thus he trains

himself; ‘feeling joy I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.

(7) “ ‘Feeling the mental formation (citta-sankhàra)

I will breathe in,’ thus he trains himself, ‘feeling the

mental formation I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.

(8) “ ‘Calming the mental formation I will breathe

in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘calming the mental formation

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

III. (9) “ ‘Clearly perceiving the mind (citta) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘clearly perceiving

the mind I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(10) “ ‘Gladdening the mind I will breathe in,’ thus

he trains himself; ‘gladdening the mind I will breathe

out,’ thus he trains himself.

(11) “ ‘Concentrating the mind I will breathe in,

thus he trains himself; ‘concentrating the mind I will

breathe out’, thus he trains himself.

(12) “ ‘Freeing the mind I will breathe in,’ thus he

trains himself; ‘freeing the mind I will breathe out,’ thus

he trains himself.

IV. (13) “ ‘Reflecting on impermanence (anicca) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on impermanence

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(14) “ ‘Reflecting on detachment (viràga) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on detachment

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

– 33 –

(15) “ ‘Reflecting on extinction (nirodha) I will

breathe in,’ thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on extinction

I will breathe out,’ thus he trains himself.

(16) “ ‘Reflecting on abandonment (patinissagga)

I will breathe in, thus he trains himself; ‘reflecting on

abandonment I will breathe out,’ thus he trains

himself.”

In M. 118 it is further shown how these 16 exercises

bring about the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.), namely: 1-4 contemplation of the

body, 5-8 contemplation of feeling, 9-12 contemplation

of mind (consciousness), 13-16 contemplation of mindobjects.

Then it is shown how these 4 foundations of

mindfulness bring about the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.); then these again deliverance of mind

(ceto-vimutti, q.v.) and deliverance through wisdom

(pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.).

Literature: ânàpànasati Saüyutta (S. LIV). –

Pts.M. ânàpànakathà – Full explanation of practice in

Vis.M. VIII, 145ff. – For a comprehensive anthology of

canonical and commentarial texts, see Mindfulness of

Breathing, ¥àõamoli Thera (Kandy: BPS, 1964).

anattà: ‘not-self’, non-ego, egolessness, impersonality,

is the last of the three characteristics of existence

(ti-lakkhaõa, q.v.). The anattà doctrine teaches that

neither within the bodily and mental phenomena of

existence, nor outside of them, can be found anything

that in the ultimate sense could be regarded as a selfexisting

real ego-entity, soul or any other abiding

substance. This is the central doctrine of Buddhism,

without understanding which a real knowledge of

– 34 –

Buddhism is altogether impossible. It is the only really

specific Buddhist doctrine, with which the entire Structure

of the Buddhist teaching stands or falls. All the

remaining Buddhist doctrines may, more or less, be

found in other philosophic systems and religions, but

the anattà-doctrine has been clearly and unreservedly

taught only by the Buddha, wherefore the Buddha is

known as the anattà-vàdi, or ‘Teacher of Impersonality’.

Whosoever has not penetrated this impersonality of all

existence, and does not comprehend that in reality

there exists only this continually self-consuming process

of arising and passing bodily and mental phenomena,

and that there is no separate ego-entity within or

without this process, he will not be able to understand

Buddhism, i.e. the teaching of the 4 Noble Truths

(sacca, q.v.), in the right light. He will think that it is his

ego, his personality, that experiences suffering, his personality

that performs good and evil actions and will be

reborn according to these actions, his personality that

will enter into Nibbàna, his personality that walks on

the Eightfold Path. Thus it is said in Vis.M. XVI:

“Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found;

The deeds are, but no doer of the deeds is there;

Nibbàna is, but not the man that enters it;

The path is, but no traveller on it is seen.”

“Whosoever is not clear with regard to the conditionally

arisen phenomena, and does not comprehend

that all the actions are conditioned through ignorance,

etc., he thinks that it is an ego that understands or does

not understand, that acts or causes to act, that comes to

existence at rebirth… that has the sense-impression,

– 35 –

that feels, desires, becomes attached, continues and at

rebirth again enters a new existence” (Vis.M. XVII, 117).

While in the case of the first two characteristics it is

stated that all formations (sabbe sankhàrà) are impermanent

and subject to suffering, the corresponding text

for the third characteristic states that “all things are notself”

(sabbe dhammà anattà; M. 35, Dhp. 279). This is

for emphasizing that the false view of an abiding self or

substance is neither applicable to any ‘formation’ or

conditioned phenomenon, nor to Nibbàna, the Unconditioned

Element (asankhatà dhàtu).

The Anattà-lakkhana Sutta, the ‘Discourse on the

Characteristic of Not-self’, was the second discourse

after Enlightenment, preached by the Buddha to his

first five disciples, who after hearing it attained to

perfect Holiness (arahatta).

The contemplation of not-self (anattànupassanà)

leads to the emptiness liberation (su¤¤atà-vimokkha,

s. vimokkha). Herein the faculty of wisdom

(pa¤¤indriya) is outstanding, and one who attains in

that way the path of Stream-entry is called a Dhammadevotee

(dhammànusàri; s. ariya-puggala); at the next

two stages of sainthood he becomes a vision-attainer

(diññhippatta); and at the highest stage, i.e. Holiness, he

is called ‘liberated by wisdom’ (pa¤¤à-vimutta).

For further details, see paramattha-sacca, pañiccasamuppàda,

khandha, ti-lakkhaõa, nàma-råpa,

pañisandhi.

Literature: Anattà-lakkhana Sutta, Vinaya I, 13-14;

S. XXII, 59; tr. in Three Cardinal Discourses of the Buddha

(Wheel 17). – Another important text on Anattà is the

Discourse on the Snake Simile (Alagaddåpama Sutta, M. 22;

– 36 –

tr. in Wheel 48/49). Other texts in “Path”. – Further:

Anattà and Nibbàna, by Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel 11);

The Truth of Anattà, by Dr. G. P. Malalasekera (Wheel 94);

The Three Basic Facts of Existence III: Egolessness

(Wheel 202/204)

anattànupassanà: ‘contemplation of not-self’ is one of

the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà). See also

above.

anattà-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of not-self’; see A. VI, 104;

A. VII, 48; A. X, 60; Ud. IV, 1.

anattà-vàda: the ‘doctrine of impersonality’; s. anattà.

àne¤ja: ‘imperturbability’, denotes the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara; s. avacara); s. sankhàra.

cf. M. 106.

anger: s. måla.

anicca: ‘impermanent’ (or, as abstract noun, aniccatà,

‘impermanence’) is the first of the three characteristics

of existence (tilakkhana, q.v.). It is from the fact of

impermanence that, in most texts, the other two characteristics,

suffering (dukkha) and not-self (anattà), are

derived (S. XXII, 15; Ud. IV, I)

“Impermanence of things is the rising, passing and

changing of things, or the disappearance of things that

have become or arisen. The meaning is that these things

never persist in the same way, but that they are vanishing

dissolving from moment to moment” (Vis.M. VII, 3).

Impermanence is a basic feature of all conditioned

phenomena, be they material or mental, coarse or

– 37 –

subtle, one’s own or external: All formations are impermanent”

(sabbe sankhàrà aniccà; M. 35, Dhp. 277).

That the totality of existence is impermanent is also

often stated in terms of the five aggregates

(khandha, q.v.), the twelve personal and external sense

bases (àyatana q.v.), etc. Only Nibbàna (q.v.), which is

unconditioned and not a formation (asankhata), is

permanent (nicca, dhuva).

The insight leading to the first stage of deliverance,

Stream-entry (sotàpatti; s. ariya-puggala), is often

expressed in terms of impermanence: “Whatever is

subject to origination, is subject to cessation”

(s. Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, S. XLVI, 11). In his

last exhortation, before his Parinibbàna, the Buddha

reminded his monks of the impermanence of existence

as a spur to earnest effort: “Behold now, Bhikkhus,

I exhort you: Formations are bound to vanish. Strive

earnestly!” (vayadhammà sankhàrà, appamàdena

sampàdetha; D. 16).

Without the deep insight into the impermanence

and insubstantiality of all phenomena of existence

there is no attainment of deliverance. Hence comprehension

of impermanence gained by direct meditative

experience heads two lists of insight knowledge:

(a) contemplation of impermanence (aniccànupassanà)

is the first of the 18 chief kinds of insight (q.v.); (b) the

contemplation of arising and vanishing

(udayabbayànupassanà-¤àõa) is the first of 9 kinds of

knowledge which lead to the ‘purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi, VI).

– Contemplation of impermanence leads to the condit-

38 –

ionless deliverance (animitta-vimokkha; s. vimokkha).

As herein the faculty of confidence (saddhindriya) is

outstanding, he who attains in that way the path of

Stream-entry is called a faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã;

s. ariya-puggala) and at the seven higher stages he is

called faith-liberated (saddhà-vimutta), – See also

anicca-sa¤¤à.

See The Three Basic Facts of Existence I: Impermanence

(Wheel 186/187)

aniccànupassanà: ‘contemplation of impermanence’,

is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà).

anicca-sa¤¤à: ‘perception of impermanence’, is

defined in the Girimananda Sutta (A.X. 60) as

meditation on the impermanence of the five groups of

existence.

“Though, with a faithful heart, one takes refuge in

the Buddha, his Teaching and the Community of

Monks; or with a faithful heart observes the rules of

morality, or develops a mind full of loving-kindness, far

more meritorious it is if one cultivates the perception of

impermanence, be it only for a moment” (A.X. 20).

See A. VI, 102; A. VII, 48; Ud. IV, 1; S. XXII, 102.

animitta-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

animittànupassanà: s. vipassanà.

animitta-vimokkha: s. vimokkha.

a¤¤a: ‘other’, being of the opposite category.

– 39 –

a¤¤à: ‘highest knowledge’, gnosis, refers to the perfect

knowledge of the Saint (Arahat; s. ariya-puggala). The

following passage occurs frequently in the Suttas, when

a monk indicates his attainment of Holiness (arahatta):

“He makes known highest knowledge (a¤¤aü

vyàkaroti), thus: ‘Rebirth has ceased, fulfilled is the

holy life, the task is accomplished, and there is no more

of this to come.’ ”

The ‘faculty of highest knowledge’ (a¤¤’ indriya =

a¤¤à-indriya; s. indriya), however, is present in six of

the eight stages of holiness, that is, beginning with the

fruition of Stream-Winning (sotàpatti-phala) up to the

path of Holiness (arahatta-magga). See Dhs. (PTS)

362-364, 505, 553; Indriya Vibhanga; “Path” 162.

a¤¤àma¤¤a-paccaya: ‘mutuality-condition,’ is one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

a¤¤àtàvindriya: ‘the faculty of one who knows’;

s. indriya, 22.

a¤¤indriya: ‘the faculty of highest knowledge’; s. a¤¤à

and indriya, 21.

anottappa: s. ahirika.

answering questions: 4 ways of: s. pa¤hà-byàkaraõa.

antarà-parinibbàyã: is one of the 5 kinds of Non-

Returners or Anàgàmã (q.v.).

antinomies: s. diññhi.

anuloma-citta: ‘adaptation-moment of consciousness’,

denotes the third of the 4 moments of impulsion

– 40 –

(javana, q.v.) flashing up immediately before either

reaching the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) or the supermundane

paths (s. ariya-puggala). These 4 moments of

impulsion are: the preparation (parikamma), access

(upacàra), adaptation (anuloma) and maturity

(gotrabhå) moments. For further details, s. javana,

gotrabhå.

anuloma-¤àõa: ‘adaptation-knowledge’ or conformityknowledge,

is identical with the ‘adaptation-to-truth

knowledge’, the last of 9 insight-knowledges

(vipassanà-¤àõa) which constitute the purification of

knowledge and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi

VI, 9). Cf. Vis.M. XXI.

anupàdisesa-nibbàna: see Nibbàna, upàdi.

anupassanà: ‘contemplation’ – 4 fold: s. satipaññhàna –

18 fold: s. vipassanà. – 7 fold: “The seven contemplation’s:

(1) Contemplating (formations) as impermanent,

one abandons the perception of permanence.

(2) Contemplating (them) as painful, one abandons

the perception of happiness (to be found in them).

(3) Contemplating (them) as not self, one abandons

the perception of self. (4) Becoming dispassionate, one

abandons delighting. (5) Causing fading away, one

abandons greed. (6) Causing cessation, one abandons

originating. (7) Relinquishing, one abandons grasping”

(Pts.M. I, p. 58). – See also Vis.M. XXI, 43; XXII, 114.

anupubba-nirodha: The 9 ‘successive extinctions’, are

the 8 extinctions reached through the 8 absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.) and the extinction of feeling and

– 41 –

perception’ (s. nirodha-samàpatti), as it is said in A. IX,

31 and D. 33:

“In him who has entered the 1st absorption, the

sensuous perceptions (kàma-sa¤¤à) are extinguished.

Having entered the 2nd absorption, thought-conception

and discursive thinking (vitakkavicàra, q.v.) are

extinguished. Having entered the 3rd absorption,

rapture (pãti, q.v.) is extinguished. Having entered the

4th absorption, in-and-out breathing (assàsapassàsa,

q.v.) are extinguished. Having entered the

sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana), the

corporeality perceptions (råpa-sa¤¤à) are extinguished.

Having entered the sphere of boundless consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana), the perception of the sphere of

boundless space is extinguished. Having entered the

sphere of nothingness (àki¤ca¤¤àyatana), the

perception of the sphere of boundless consciousness is

extinguished. Having entered the sphere of neitherperception-

nor-non-perception (neva-sa¤¤ànàsa¤¤

àyatana) the perception of the sphere of

nothingness is extinguished. Having entered the

extinction of perception and feeling (sa¤¤àvedayitanirodha)

perception and feeling are extinguished.” For

further details, s. jhàna, nirodha-samàpatti.

anupubba-vihàra: the 9 ‘successive abodes’, are

identical with the 9 anupubba-nirodha (s. above).

In A. IX, 33 they are called successive attainments

(anupubba-samàpatti).

ànupubbã-kathà: ‘gradual instruction’, progressive

sermon; given by the Buddha when it was necessary to

– 42 –

prepare first the listener’s mind before speaking to him

on the advanced teaching of the Four Noble Truths.

The stock passage (e.g. D. 3; D. 14; M. 56) runs as

follows:

“Then the Blessed One gave him a gradual instruction

– that is to say, he spoke on liberality (‘giving’,

dàna, q.v.), on moral conduct (sãla) and on the heavens

(sagga); he explained the peril, the vanity and the

depravity of sensual pleasures, and the advantages of

renunciation. When the Blessed One perceived that the

listener’s mind was prepared, pliant, free from

obstacles, elevated and lucid; then he explained to him

that exalted teaching particular to the Buddhas

(Buddhànaü sàmukkaüsikà desanà), that is: suffering,

its cause, its ceasing, and the path.”

anurakkhana-padhàna: the ‘effort to maintain’

wholesome states; s. padhàna.

anusaya: the 7 ‘proclivities’, inclinations, or tendencies

are: sensuous greed (kàma-ràga, s. saüyojana), grudge

(pañigha), speculative opinion (diññhi, q.v.), skeptical

doubt (vicikicchà, q.v.), conceit (màna, q.v.), craving for

continued existence (bhavaràga), ignorance

(avijjà, q.v.) (D. 33; A. VII, 11, 12).

“These things are called ‘proclivities’ since, in

consequence of their pertinacity, they ever and again

tend to become the conditions for the arising of ever

new sensuous greed, etc.’’ (Vis.M. XXII, 60).

Yam. VII, first determines in which beings such and

such proclivities exist, and which proclivities, and with

regard to what, and in which sphere of existence.

– 43 –

Thereafter it gives an explanation concerning their

overcoming, their penetration, etc. Cf. Guide VI (vii).

According to Kath. several ancient Buddhist schools

erroneously held the opinion that the anusayas, as

such, meant merely latent, hence karmically neutral

qualities, which however Contradicts the Theravàda

conception. Cf. Guide V, 88, 108, 139.

anussati: ‘recollection’, meditation, contemplation.

The six recollections often described in the Suttas

(e.g. A. VI, 10, 25; D. 33) are: (1) recollection of the

Buddha, (2) his Doctrine, (3) his Community of noble

disciples, (4) of morality, (5) liberality, (6) heavenly

beings (buddhànussati, dhammànussati, sanghànussati,

sãlànussati, càgànussati, devatànussati).

(1) “The noble disciple, Mahànàma, recollects

thus: ‘This Blessed One is holy, a fully Enlightened

One, perfected in wisdom and conduct, faring happily,

knower of the worlds, unsurpassed leader of men to be

trained, teacher of heavenly beings and men, a Buddha,

a Blessed One.’

(2) ‘Well proclaimed by the Blessed One is the

Doctrine (dhamma), directly visible, with immediate

fruit, inviting investigation, leading on to Nibbàna, to be

comprehended by the wise, each by himself.’

(3) ‘Of good conduct is the Community (Sangha)

of the Blessed One’s disciples, of upright conduct, living

on the right path, performing their duties, to wit: the

4 pairs of men or 8 individuals (s. ariya puggala). This

Community of the Blessed One’s disciples is worthy of

offerings, worthy of hospitality, worthy of gifts, worthy

– 44 –

of reverence with raised hands, the unsurpassed field

for doing meritorious deeds.’

(4) “The noble disciple further recollects his own

morality (sãla) which is unbroken, without any breach,

undefiled, untarnished, conducive to liberation, praised

by the wise, not dependent (on craving or opinions),

leading to concentration.

(5) “The noble disciple further recollects his own

liberality (càga) thus: ‘Blessed truly am I, highly blessed

am I who, amongst beings defiled with the filth of

stinginess, live with heart free from stinginess, liberal,

open-handed, rejoicing in giving, ready to give anything

asked for, glad to give and share with others.’

(6) “The noble disciple further recollects the

heavenly beings (devatà): ‘There are the heavenly

beings of the retinue of the Four Great Kings, the

heavenly beings of the World of the Thirty-Three, the

Yàmadevas… and there are heavenly beings besides

(s. deva). Such faith, such morality, such knowledge,

such liberality, such insight, possessed of which those

heavenly beings, after vanishing from here, are reborn

in those worlds, such things are also found in me.’ ”

(A. III,70; VI,10; XI,12).

“At the time when the noble disciple recollects the

Perfect One… at such a time his mind is neither

possessed of greed, nor of hate, nor of delusion. Quite

upright at such a time is his mind owing to the Perfect

One…. With upright mind the noble disciple attains

understanding of the sense, understanding of the law,

attains joy through the law. In the joyous one rapture

arises. With heart enraptured, his whole being becomes

– 45 –

stilled. Stilled within his being, he feels happiness; and

the mind of the happy one becomes firm. Of this noble

disciple it is said that amongst those gone astray, he

walks on the right path, among those suffering he

abides free from suffering. Thus having reached the

stream of the law, he develops the recollection of the

Enlightened One….” (A. VI, 10).

In A. I, 21 (PTS: I, xvi) and A. I, 27 (PTS: xx. 2)

another 4 recollections are added: mindfulness on

death (maraõa-sati, q.v.), on the body (kàyagatàsati,

q.v.), on breathing (ànàpàna-sati, q.v.), and the

recollection of peace (upasamànussati, q.v.).

The first six recollections are fully explained in

Vis.M. VII, the latter four in Vis.M. VIII.

aparàpariya-vedanãya-kamma: ‘karma bearing fruits

in later births’; s. karma.

aparihàna-dhamma: ‘incapable of relapse’, or ‘of falling

away’, namely, with regard to deliverance from

some or all fetters of existence (s. saüyojana). Thus all

noble disciples are called, i.e. all those who have

attained any of the 4 noble paths to holiness

(s. ariyapuggala). With regard to the absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.), anyone is called ‘unrelapsable’ who has

attained full mastery over the absorptions. See

A. VI, 62; Pug. 6. Cf. akuppa-dhamma.

aparihàniya-dhamma: ‘conditions of welfare’ (lit. of

non-decline), for a nation. Seven such conditions are

mentioned in the Mahà-Parinibbàna Sutta (D. 16).

They are followed by five sets of 7, and one set of

6 conditions, conducive to the welfare of the Com-

46 –

munity of Monks, the Sangha. Identical texts at A. VII,

20-25. To be distinguished from the preceding term.

apàya: The 4 ‘lower worlds’. are: the animal world,

ghost world, demon-world, hell. See Vis.M. XIII, 92f.

àpo-dhàtu: ‘water-element’; s. dhàtu.

appamàda: ‘zeal’, non-laxity, earnestness, diligence, is

considered as the foundation of all progress.

Just as all the footprints of living beings are surpassed

by the footprint of the elephant, and the footprint

of the elephant is considered as the mightiest

amongst them, just so have all the meritorious qualities

zeal as their foundation, and zeal is considered as the

mightiest of these qualities’’ (A. X, 15).

Cf. the Chapter on Zeal (Appamàda Vagga) in Dhp.,

and the Buddha’s last exhortation: “Transient are all

formations. Strive zealously!” (appamàdena

sampàdetha: D. 16) – In the commentaries, it is often

explained as the presence (lit. ‘non-absence’) of

mindfulness (satiyà avippavàsa).

appamàõàbha: a kind of heavenly being; s. deva, (II).

appamàõa-ceto-vimutti: s. ceto-vimutti.

appamàõa-subha: a kind of heavenly being:

s. deva (II).

appama¤¤à: The 4 ‘Boundless States’, identical with

brahma-vihàra (q.v.).

– 47 –

appanà-samàdhi: ‘attainment concentration’ or ‘full

concentration’ (from apeti, to fix), is the concentration

existing during absorption (jhàna, q.v.), whilst the

neighbourhood or access-concentration (upacàrasamàdhi)

only approaches the 1st absorption without

attaining it; s. samàdhi.

appaõihita-vimokkha: s. vimokkha. –

Appaõihitànupassanà; s. vipassanà.

Appendants: The 3: ki¤cana (q.v.).

appicchatà: ‘having only few wishes’, contentedness, is

one of the indispensable virtues of the monk;

cf. A. X. 181-190, and ariyavaüsa (q.v.).

apu¤¤àbhisankhàra: s. sankhàra.

Arahat and arahatta-magga,-phala: s. ariya-puggala.

àrammaõa: ‘object’. There are six: visible object,

sound, odor, taste, body-impression, mind-object. The

mind-object (dhammàrammaõa) may be physical or

mental, past, present or future, real or imaginary. The

5 sense-objects belong to the corporeality-group (råpakkhandha,

s. khandha). They form the external

foundations for the sense-perceptions, and without

them no sense-perception or sense-consciousness

(seeing, hearing, etc.) can arise. Cf. àyatana, paccaya.

(App: paccaya 2.).

àrammaõàdhipati, àrammaõupanissaya: s. paccaya.

– 48 –

àra¤¤ikanga: The ‘exercise of the forest-dweller’, is

one of the ascetic purification-exercises

(dhutanga, q.v.).

arising and vanishing (of things). The knowledge

consisting in the contemplation of; s. visuddhi (VI. 1.).

ariya-iddhi: s. iddhi.

ariya-magga: s. foll.

ariya-puggala: or simply ariya: ‘Noble Ones’, ‘noble

persons’.

(A) The 8 a. are those who have realized one of

the 8 stages of holiness, i.e. the 4 supermundane paths

(magga) and the 4 supermundane fruitions (phala) of

these paths. There are 4 pairs:

1. The one realizing the path of Stream-winning

(sotàpattimagga).

2. The one realizing the fruition of Streamwinning

(sotàpattiphala).

3. The one realizing the path of Once-return

(sakadàgàmimagga).

4. The one realizing the fruition of Once-return

(sakadàgàmiphala).

5. The one realizing the path of Non-return

(anàgàmimagga).

6. The one realizing the fruition of Non-return

(anàgàmiphala).

7. The one realizing the path of Holiness

(arahatta-magga).

8. The one realizing the fruition of Holiness

(arahatta-phala).

– 49 –

Summed up, there are 4 noble individuals (ariyapuggala):

the Stream-winner (Sotàpanna), the Once-

Returner (Sakadàgàmi), the Non-Returner (Anàgàmã),

the Holy One (Arahat).

In A. VIII,10 and A. IX, 16 the gotrabhå (q.v.) is

listed as the 9th noble individual.

According to the Abhidhamma, ‘supermundane

path’, or simply ‘path’ (magga), is a designation of the

moment of entering into one of the 4 stages of holiness

– Nibbàna being the object – produced by intuitional

insight (vipassanà) into the impermanence, misery and

impersonality of existence, flashing forth and forever

transforming one’s life and nature. By ‘fruition’ (phala)

is meant those moments of consciousness which follow

immediately thereafter as the result of the path, and

which in certain circumstances may repeat for innumerable

times during the life-time.

(I) Through the path of Stream-winning (sotàpattimagga)

one ‘becomes’ free (whereas in realizing the

fruition, one ‘is’ free) from the first 3 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.) which bind beings to existence in the

sensuous sphere, to wit: (1) personality-belief

(sakkàya-diññhi; s. diññhi), (2) skeptical doubt

(vicikicchà, q.v.), (3) attachment to mere rules and

rituals (sãlabbata-paràmàsa; s. upàdàna).

(II) Through the path of Once-return (sakadàgàmimagga)

one becomes nearly free from the 4th and 5th

fetters, to wit: (4) sensuous craving (kàma-cchanda =

kàma-ràga; s. ràga), (5) ill-will (vyàpàda = dosa,

s. måla).

– 50 –

(III) Through the path of Non-return (anàgàmimagga)

one becomes fully free from the abovementioned

5 lower fetters.

(IV) Through the path of Holiness (arahattamagga)

one further becomes free from the 5 higher

fetters, to wit: (6) craving for fine material existence

(råpa-ràga), (7) craving for immaterial existence.

(aråpa-ràga), (8) conceit (màna, q.v.), (9) restlessness

(uddhacca, q.v.), (10) ignorance (avijjà, q.v.).

The stereotype Sutta text runs as follows:

(I) “After the disappearance of the three fetters, the

monk has won the stream (to Nibbàna) and is no more

subject to rebirth in lower worlds, is firmly established,

destined for full enlightenment.

(II) “After the disappearance of the three fetters

and reduction of greed, hatred and delusion, he will

return only once more; and having once more returned

to this world, he will put an end to suffering.

(III) “After the disappearance of the five fetters he

appears in a higher world, and there he reaches

Nibbàna without ever returning from that world (to the

sensuous sphere).

(IV) “Through the extinction of all cankers (àsavakkhaya)

he reaches already in this very life the

deliverance of mind, the deliverance through wisdom,

which is free from cankers, and which he himself has

understood and realized.”

For the various classes of Stream-winners and Non-

Returners, s. Sotàpanna, Anàgàmã.

– 51 –

(B) The sevenfold grouping of the noble disciples

is as follows:

(1) the faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã), (2) the faithliberated

one (saddhàvimutta), (3) the body-witness

(kàya-sakkhã), (4) the both-ways-liberated one

(ubhato-bhàga-vimutta), (5) the Dhamma-devotee

(dhammànusàrã), (6) the vision-attainer (diññhippatta),

(7) the wisdom-liberated one (pa¤¤à–vimutta). This

group of seven noble disciples is thus explained in

Vis.M. XXI, 73:

(1) “He who is filled with resolution

(adhimokkha) and, in considering the formations as

impermanent (anicca), gains the faculty of faith, he, at

the moment of the path to Stream-winning (A. 1) is

called a faith-devotee (saddhànusàrã); (2) at the seven

higher stages (A. 2-8) he is called a faith-liberated one

(saddhà-vimutta). (3) He who is filled with tranquillity

and, in considering the formations as miserable

(dukkha), gains the faculty of concentration, he in

every respect is considered as a body-witness (kàyasakkhã).

(4) He, however, who after reaching the

absorptions of the immaterial sphere has attained the

highest fruition (of Holiness), he is a both-waysliberated

one (ubhato-bhàga-vimutta). (5) He who is

filled with wisdom and, in considering the formations as

not-self (anattà), gains the faculty of wisdom, he is at

the moment of Stream-winning a Dhamma-devotee

(dhammànusàrã), (6) at the later stages (A. 2-7) a

vision-attainer (diññhippatta), (7) at the highest stage

(A. 8) a wisdom-liberated one (pa¤¤àvimutta).” –

Further details about the body-witness, the both-ways-

52 –

liberated one and the wisdom-liberated one, s. under

the three Pàli terms. Cf. also M. 70; A. IX, 44; S. XII, 70;

Pts.M. II, p. 33, PTS.

ariya-sacca: The Four ‘Noble Truths’; s. sacca.

ariya-vaüsa: The four ‘noble usage’s’, are: contentedness

(of the monk) with any robe, contentedness with

any alms-food, contentedness with any dwelling, and

delight in meditation and detachment. In the Ariyavaüsa

Sutta, (A. IV, 28) and similarly in D. 33, it is said:

“Now the monk is contented with any robe, with

any alms-food, with any dwelling, finds pleasure and

enjoyment in mental training and detachment. But

neither is he haughty on that account, nor does he look

down upon others. Now, of a monk who herein is fit

and indefatigable, who remains clearly conscious and

mindful, of such a monk it is said that he is firmly

established in the ancient, noble usage’s known as the

most lofty ones.”

Full tr. of Ariya-vaüsa Sutta in Wheel 83/84.

ariya-vihàra: s. vihàra.

aråpa-bhava: s. bhava, loka.

aråpa-jjhàna: – s. jhàna.

aråpa-kkhandha: The four ‘immaterial groups’ of

existence are: feeling, perception, mental formations,

consciousness; s. khandha.

aråpàvacara: s. avacara.

àruppa: s. jhàna.

– 53 –

asankhàra-parinibbàyã: The ‘one reaching Nibbàna

without exertion’, is one of the five classes of Non-

Returners (Anàgàmã, q.v.)

asankhàrika-citta: an Abhidhamma term signifying a

‘state of consciousness arisen spontaneously’, i.e. without

previous deliberation, preparation, or prompting by

others; hence: ‘unprepared, unprompted’. This term

and its counterpart (sasankhàrikacitta, q.v.), probably

go back to a similar distinction made in the Suttas

(A. IV, 171; “Path” 184). See Tab. I; examples in

Vis.M. XIV, 84f.

asankhata: The ‘Unformed, Unoriginated, Unconditioned’

is a name for Nibbàna, the beyond of all

becoming and conditionality.

asa¤¤a-satta: The ‘unconscious beings’, are a class of

heavenly beings in the fine-material world; s. deva (II).

“There are, O monks, heavenly beings known as the

unconscious ones. As soon, however, as in those beings

consciousness arises, those beings will vanish from that

world. Now, O monks, it may happen that one of those

beings after vanishing from that world, may reappear in

this world….” (D. 24). Further details, s. Kath.,

Yam. (Guide, pp. 68, 79, 96 ff.).

àsava: (lit: influxes), ‘cankers’, taints, corruption’s,

intoxicant biases. There is a list of four (as in D. 16,

Pts.M., Vibh.): the canker of sense-desire (kàmàsava),

of (desiring eternal) existence (bhavàsava), of

(wrong) views (diññhàsava), and of ignorance

(avijjàsava). A list of three, omitting the canker of views,

is possibly older and is more frequent in the Suttas,

– 54 –

e.g. in M. 2, M. 9, D. 33; A. III, 59, 67; A. VI, 63. – In

Vibh. (Khuddakavatthu Vibh.) both the 3-fold and

4-fold division are mentioned. The fourfold division

also occurs under the name of ‘floods’ (ogha) and

‘yokes’ (yoga).

Through the path of Stream-Entry, the canker of

views is destroyed; through the path of Non-Returning,

the canker of sense-desire; through the path of

Arahatship, the cankers of existence and ignorance.

M. 2 shows how to overcome the cankers, namely,

through insight, sense-control, avoidance, wise use of

the necessities of life, etc. For a commentarial exposition,

see Atthasàlini Tr. I, p. 63f: II, pp. 475ff.

Khãõàsava, ‘one whose cankers are destroyed’, or

‘one who is canker-free’, is a name for the Arahat or

Holy One. The state of Arahatship is frequently called

àsavakkhaya, ‘the destruction of the cankers’. Suttas

concluding with the attainment of Arahatship by the

listeners, often end with the words: “During this

utterance, the hearts of the Bhikkhus were freed from

the cankers through clinging no more” (anupàdàya

àsavehi cittàni vimuccimså’ti).

àsavakkhaya: see above.

ascending insight: s. vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà.

ascetic purification practices: s. dhutanga.

asekha: (lit.: ‘not-learner’; s. sekha), a disciple

‘perfected in training’, one beyond training, an adept.

This is a name for the Arahat, the Holy One (s. ariyapuggala),

since he has reached the perfection in higher

moral training, higher mind training and higher wisdom

– 55 –

training (s. sikkhà) and needs no longer to train himself

therein.

àsevana-paccaya: ‘repetition’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

asmi-màna: (lit.: ‘I am’-conceit), ‘ego-conceit’, may

range from the coarsest pride and self-assertion to a

subtle feeling of one’s distinctiveness or superiority that

persists, as the 8th fetter (saüyojana, q.v.), until the

attainment of Arahatship or Holiness. It is based upon

the comparison of oneself with others, and may, therefore,

manifest itself also as a feeling of inferiority or the

claim to be equal (s. màna). It has to be distinguished

from ‘ego-belief’ (sakkàya-diññhi, q.v.) which implies a

definite belief or view (diññhi) concerning the assumption

of a self or soul, and, being the 1st of the fetters,

disappears at attainment of Stream-Entry (sotàpatti;

s. ariya-puggala).

“Even when the five lower fetters have vanished in

a noble disciple, there is still in him, with regard to the

five groups of clinging, a slight undiscarded measure of

the conceit ‘I am’, of the will ‘I am’, of the proclivity

‘I am’ ” (S. XXII, 89). – s. màna.

assàsa-passàsa: ‘in-and-out-breathing’, are corporeal

or physical functions or ‘formations’ (kàya-sankhàra),

whilst thought-conception and discursive thinking

(vitakka and vicàra) are called verbal functions (vacãsankhàra),

s. sankhàra (2). In-and-out-breathing forms

one of the 6 aspects of the wind-element (s. dhàtu).

Cf. M. 62.

– 56 –

association: sampayutta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

asubha: ‘impurity’, loathsomeness, foulness. – In

Vis.M. VI, it is the cemetery contemplations

(sãvathika, q.v.) that are called ‘meditation-subjects of

impurity’ (asubha-kammaññhàna; s. bhàvanà). In the

Girimànanda Sutta (A. X., 50), however, the perception

of impurity (asubha-sa¤¤à) refers to the contemplation

of the 32 parts of the body (s. kàya-gatà-sati). The

contemplation of the body’s impurity is an antidote

against the hindrance of sense-desire (s. nãvaraõa) and

the mental perversion (vipallàsa, q.v.) which sees what

is truly impure as pure and beautiful. See S. XLVI, 51;

A. V. 36, Dhp. 7, 8; Sn. 193ff. – The Five Mental

Hindrances (Wheel 26), pp. 5ff.

asura: ‘demons’, titans, evil ghosts, inhabiting one of

the lower worlds (apàya, q.v.).

atappa: ‘the unworried’, is the name of a class of deities

(s. deva,) inhabiting the first of the five Pure Abodes

(suddhàvàsa, q.v.), in which the Anàgàmã (q.v.) has his

last rebirth.

atimàna: ‘superiority-conceit’; s. màna.

attà: ‘self, ego, personality, is in Buddhism a mere

conventional expression (vohàradesanà), and no

designation for anything really existing; s. paramatthadesanà,

anattà, puggala, satta, jãva.

attachments: s. paràmàsa.

– 57 –

atta-diññhi (-vàda): ‘ego-belief’, ‘personality-belief’,

s. diññhi.

attainment-concentration: appanà-samàdhi (q.v.);

s. samàdhi.

attainments, ‘The 8 a.’; s. samàpatti.

atta-kilamatha: ‘self-mortification’, is one of the two

extremes to be avoided, the other extreme being

addiction to sensual pleasures (kàma-sukha), whilst the

Noble 8-fold Path constitutes the Middle Path

(majjhima-pañipadà, q.v.). See the Buddha’s first

sermon, “The Establishment of the Realm of Dhamma”

(Dhamma-cakkappavattana-Sutta).

atta-sa¤¤à (°citta, °diññhi): ‘perception (consciousness,

view) of an ego’, is one of the 4 perversions

(vipallàsa, q.v.).

atta-vàdupàdàna: ‘attachment to the ego-belief’, is

one of the 4 kinds of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

attention: s. manasikàra.

attentiveness, attention, mindfulness; s. sati,

satipaññhàna.

aññhangika-magga: The ‘Eightfold Path’; s. magga.

aññha-pañisambhidà: The ‘analytical knowledge of

meaning’, is one of the 4 kinds of analytical knowledge

(pañisambhidà, q.v.).

atthi-paccaya: ‘presence’, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

– 58 –

auditory organ: s. àyatana.

avacara: ‘sphere’, realm. The 3 spheres of existence

are: the sensuous sphere (kàmàvacara), the finematerial

sphere (råpàvacara), the immaterial sphere

(aråpàvacara). “Which things are of the sensuous

sphere (kàmàvacara)? Whatever things exist within the

interval bounded beneath by the Avãci-hell and above

by the Paranimmitavasavatti-heaven (s. deva), having

therein their sphere, and being therein included, to wit:

the groups of existence, the elements, bases

(s. khandha, dhàtu, àyatana), corporeality, feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness, all

these things are of the sensuous sphere. – But which

things are of the fine material sphere (råpàvacara)?

Whatever things exist within the interval bounded

beneath by the Brahma-world and above by the

Akaniññha-world (s. deva), having therein their sphere,

and being therein included… and also consciousness

and mental factors in one who has entered the (finematerial)

absorptions, or who has been reborn in that

sphere, or who already during his life-time is living in

happiness (of the absorptions), all these things are of

the fine-material sphere. – Which things are of the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara)? Consciousness and

mental factors arising within the interval bounded beneath

by the beings reborn in the sphere of unbounded

space and above by the beings reborn in the sphere of

neither-perception-nor-non-perception (s. jhàna 5-8),

and consciousness and mental factors in one who has

entered the (immaterial absorptions), or who has been

reborn in that sphere, or who already during his lifetime

is living in happiness (of the immaterial absorp-

59 –

tions), all these things are of the immaterial sphere.”

(Cf. Dhs. 1280, 1282, 1284; Vibh. XVIII). (App.).

àvajjana: ‘advertence’ of the mind towards the object,

forms the first stage in the process of consciousness

(s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca). If an object of the 5 physical senses

is concerned, it is called ‘five-door advertence’ (pa¤ca

dvàràvajjana); in the case of a mental object, ‘minddoor

advertence’ (mano-dvàràvajjana).

aversion (from existence), contemplation of:

s. vipassanà (VI. 5)

avãci is the name of one of the most frightful hells

(niraya, q.v.).

avigata-paccaya: ‘non-disappearance’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

aviha (derivation uncertain; Sanskrit avçha) is one of

the five Pure Abodes (suddhàvàsa, q.v.) in the finematerial

sphere. For details, s. under Anàgàmã.

avihiüsà (equivalents: ahiüsà, avihesà): ‘harmlessness’,

nonviolence, absence of cruelty. The ‘thought of

harmlessness’ (or: ‘non-cruelty’; avihiüsà-vitakka) is

one of the three constituents of right thought (sammàsankappa),

i.e. the 2nd factor of the Eightfold Path

(s. magga). In the several lists of ‘elements’ (dhàtu)

appears also an ‘element of harmlessness’ (avihesàdhàtu),

in the sense of an elementary quality of noble

thought. See Dhp. 225, 261, 270, 300.

avijjà: ‘ignorance,’ nescience, unknowing; synonymous

with delusion (moha, s. måla), is the primary root of all

– 60 –

evil and suffering in the world, veiling man’s mental

eyes and preventing him from seeing the true nature of

things. It is the delusion tricking beings by making life

appear to them as permanent, happy, substantial and

beautiful and preventing them from seeing that everything

in reality is impermanent, liable to suffering, void

of ‘I’ and ‘mine’, and basically impure (s. vipallàsa).

Ignorance is defined as ‘not knowing the four truths,

namely, suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the way

to its cessation’ (S. XII, 4).

As ignorance is the foundation of all life-affirming

actions, of all evil and suffering, therefore it stands first

in the formula of Dependent Origination (pañiccasamuppàda,

q.v.). But for that reason, says Vis.M. (XVII,

36f) ignorance should not be regarded as “the causeless

root-cause of the world…. It is not causeless. For a

cause of it is stated thus ‘With the arising of cankers

(àsava, q.v.) there is the arising of ignorance’ (M. 9).

But there is a figurative way in which it can be treated

as a root-cause; namely, when it is made to serve as a

starting point in an exposition of the Round of Existence….

As it is said: ‘No first beginning of ignorance can

be perceived, Bhikkhus, before which ignorance was

not, and after which it came to be. But it can be perceived

that ignorance has its specific condition (idappaccaya)”

(A. X, 61). The same statement is made (A. X, 62)

about the craving for existence (bhava-taõhà; s. taõhà).

The latter and ignorance are called “the outstanding

causes of kamma that lead to unhappy and happy

destinies” (Vis.M. XVII, 38).

As ignorance still exists – though in a very refined

way until the attainment of Arahatship or Holiness, it is

– 61 –

counted as the last of the 10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.)

which bind beings to the cycle of rebirths. As the first

two roots of evil, greed and hate (s. måla), are on their

part rooted in ignorance, consequently all unwholesome

states of mind are inseparably bound up with it.

Ignorance (or delusion) is the most obstinate of the

three roots of evil.

Ignorance is one of the cankers (àsava, q.v.) and

proclivities (anusaya, q.v.). It is often called a hindrance

(nãvaraõa; e.g. in S.XV, 3; A.X, 61) but does not

appear together with the usual list of five hindrances.

avikkhepa: ‘undistractedness’, is a synonym of

concentration (samàdhi, q.v.), one-pointedness of mind

(citt’ekaggatà) and tranquillity (samatha, q.v.; further

s. samatha-vipassanà).

avoidance and performance: s. càritta, etc. – The

effort to avoid, s. padhàna.

avyàkata: lit. ‘indeterminate’ – i.e. neither determined

as karmically ‘wholesome’ nor as ‘unwholesome’ – are

the karmically neutral, i.e. amoral, states of consciousness

and mental factors. They are either mere karmaresults

(vipàka, q.v.), as e.g. all the sense perceptions

and the mental factors associated therewith, or they are

karmically independent functions (kiriya-citta, q.v.),

i.e. neither karmic nor karma-resultant. See

Tab. I. (App.).

avyàpàda: ‘hatelessness’, non-ill-will, goodness; is one

of the three kinds of right thought (s. sacca, IV. 2), or

wholesome thoughts (vitakka, q.v.) and is the 9th of the

10 wholesome courses of actions (kammapatha II. q.v.).

– 62 –

The most frequently used synonyms are adosa (s. måla)

and mettà (s. brahma-vihàra).

awakenment: s. bodhi.

àyatana: 1. ‘spheres’, is a name for the four immaterial

absorptions; s. jhàna (5-8).

2. The 12 ‘bases’ or ‘sources’ on which depend the

mental processes, consist of five physical sense-organs

and consciousness, being the six personal (ajjhattika)

bases; and the six objects, the so-called external

(bàhira) bases – namely:

eye, or visual organ visible object

ear, or auditory organ sound, or audible object

nose, or olfactory organ odour, or olfactive object

tongue, or gustatory organ taste, or gustative object

body, or tactile organ body-impression, or

tactile object

mind-base, or consciousness mind-object

(manàyatana) (dhammàyatana)

“By the visual organ (cakkhàyatana) is meant the

sensitive part of the eye (cakkhu-pasàda) built up of the

four elements… responding to sense-stimuli”

(sa-ppañigha)…. (Vibh. II). Similar is the explanation of

the four remaining physical sense-organs.

Mind-base (manàyatana) is a collective term for all

consciousness whatever, and should therefore not be

confounded with the mind-element (mano-dhàtu;

s. dhàtu II, 16), which latter performs only the functions

of adverting (àvajjana) to the sense-object, and of

receiving (sampañicchana) the sense-object. On the

functions of the mind, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

– 63 –

The visible object (råpàyatana) is described in

Vibh. II as “that phenomenon which is built up of the

four physical elements and appears as color, etc.” What

is seen by-visual perception, i.e. by eye-consciousness

(cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa) are colors and differences of light,

but not three dimensional bodily things.

‘Mind-object-base’ (dhammàyatana) is identical

with ‘mind-object-element’ (dhamma-dhàtu; s. dhàtu II)

and dhammàrammana (s. àrammaõa). It may be

physical or mental, past, present or future, real or

imaginary.

The 5 physical sense-organs are also called faculties

(indriya, q.v.), and of these faculties it is said in

M. 43: “Each of the five faculties owns a different

sphere, and none of them partakes of the sphere of

another one;… they have mind as their support… are

conditioned by vitality,… but vitality again is conditioned

by heat, heat again by vitality, just as the light

and flame of a burning lamp are mutually conditioned.”

The 12 bases are fully discussed in Vis.M. XV. In

Yam. III (s. Guide, p. 98f) the 12 terms are subjected to

a logical investigation The six personal bases form the

5th link of dependent origination (pañicca-samuppàda

5, q.v.).

àyåhana: (karmic)‘accumulation’, is a name used in

the commentarial literature for the wholesome and

unwholesome volitional activities (karma, q.v.) or

karma-formations (sankhàra; s. pañicca-samuppàda),

being the bases of future rebirth. “ ‘Accumulation’, is a

name for the karma-formations, and signifies those

volitions (cetanà) which arise at the performance of a

– 64 –

karma, first while thinking ‘I will give alms’, and then

while actually giving alms (e.g.) for one month or a

year. The volition, however, at the time when one is

handing the alms over to the recipient; is called karmaprocess

(kamma-bhava, s. Vis.M. XVII, IX, X). Or, the

volitions during the first six impulsive-moments

(javana, q.v.) depending on one and the same state of

advertence (àvajjana, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca), these are called

the karma-formations, whilst the 7th impulsive moment

is called the karma-process (kamma-bhava)…. Or, each

volition is called ‘karma-process’ and the accumulation

connected with it, ‘karma-formation’.” (Vis.M. XVII).

Cf. pañicca-samuppàda (2, 10) – (App.).

– 65 –

B

bahula-kamma: ‘habitual karma’: s. karma.

bala: ‘powers’. Among various groups of powers the

following five are most frequently met with in the texts:

(1) faith (saddhà, q.v.), (2) energy (viriya, q.v.),

(3) mindfulness (sati, q.v.), (4) concentration

(samàdhi, q.v.), (5) wisdom (pa¤¤à, q.v.).

Their particular aspect, distinguishing them from

the corresponding 5 spiritual faculties (indriya, q.v.), is

that they are unshakable by their opposites: (1) the

power of faith is unshakable by faithlessness

(unbelief); (2) energy, by laziness; (3) mindfulness, by

forgetfulness; (4) concentration, by distractedness;

(5) wisdom, by ignorance (see Pts.M., ¥àõa Kathà).

They represent, therefore, the aspect of firmness in the

spiritual faculties.

According to A.V. 15, the power (1) becomes

manifest in the 4 qualities of the Stream-winner

(sotàpannassa angàni, q.v.), (2) in the 4 right efforts

(s. padhàna), (3) in the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.), (4) in the 4 absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.), (5) in the (full comprehension of

the) 4 Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.).

Cf. S. XLVIII, 43; S. L. (Bala Saüyutta).

In A. VII, 3, the powers of moral shame (hiri, q.v.)

and moral dread (ottappa) are added to the aforementioned

five Several other groups of 2 (s. pañisankhànabala),

4, 5 and more powers are mentioned in the texts.

– About the 10 powers of a Buddha, s. dasa-bala.

– 66 –

balance of mental faculties: indriya samatta (q.v.).

bases: The 12 of the perceptual process:

àyatana (q.v.).

beautiful: sobhana (q.v.).

beauty, deliverance through the perception of:

cf. vimokkha (II. 3). To hold for beautiful or pure

(subha) what is impure (asubha), is one of the

4 perversions (s. vipallàsa).

behaviour, morality consisting in good:

abhisamàcàrikasãla (q.v.).

being, living: satta (q.v.); further s. puggala. – Belief in

eternal personality: bhava-diññhi (s. diññhi), sassatadiññhi

(q.v.).

beings, The 9 worlds of: sattàvàsa (q.v.).

belief, blind: s. indriya-samatta.

bhangànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in

contemplation of dissolution’ (of all forms of

existence), is one kind of insight: s. visuddhi (VI, 2).

bhava: ‘becoming’, ‘process of existence’, consists of

3 planes: sensuous existence (kàma-bhava), finematerial

existence (råpa-bhava), immaterial existence

(aråpa-bhava). Cf. loka.

The whole process of existence may be divided into

two aspects:

(1) Karma-process (kamma-bhava), i.e. the karmically

active side of existence, being the cause of rebirth

and consisting in wholesome and unwholesome volitional

actions. See Karma, pañicca-samuppàda (IX).

– 67 –

(2) Karma-produced rebirth, or regenerating process

(uppattibhava), i.e. the karmically passive side of

existence consisting in the arising and developing of the

karma-produced and therefore morally neutral mental

and bodily phenomena of existence. Cf. Tab. – (App.).

bhàva: (feminine and masculine) ‘nature’, refers to the

sexual characteristics of the body, and belongs to the

group of corporeality (s. khandha). It is a commentarial

term for the faculties of femininity and masculinity

(s. indriya 7, 8). (App.).

bhava-diññhi: ‘belief in being’ (eternal personality);

s. sassatadiññhi, diññhi.

bhàvanà: ‘mental development’ (lit. ‘calling into

existence, producing’) is what in English is generally

but rather vaguely called ‘meditation’. One has to

distinguish 2 kinds: development of tranquillity

(samatha-bhàvanà), i.e. concentration (samàdhi), and

development of insight (vipassanà-bhàvanà),

i.e. wisdom (pa¤¤à).

These two important terms, tranquillity and insight

(s. samatha-vipassanà), are very often met with and

explained in the Sutta, as well as in the Abhidhamma.

Tranquillity (samatha) is the concentrated, unshaken,

peaceful, and therefore undefiled state of

mind, whilst insight (vipassanà) is the intuitive insight

into the impermanence, misery and impersonality

(anicca, dukkha, anattà; s. tilakkhaõa) of all bodily and

mental phenomena of existence, included in the

5 groups of existence, namely, corporeality, feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness;

s. khandha.

– 68 –

Tranquillity, or concentration of mind, according to

Sankhepavaõõana (Commentary to Abhidhammatthasangaha),

bestows a threefold blessing: favourable rebirth,

present happy life, and purity of mind which is

the condition of insight. Concentration (samàdhi) is the

indispensable foundation and precondition of insight

by purifying the mind from the 5 mental defilements or

hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.), whilst insight

(vipassanà) produces the 4 supra mundane stages of

holiness and deliverance of mind. The Buddha therefore

says: “May you develop mental concentration,

O monks; for who is mentally concentrated, sees things

according to reality” (S. XXII, 5). And in Mil. it is said:

“Just as when a lighted lamp is brought into a dark

chamber, the lamp-light will destroy the darkness and

produce and spread the light, just so will insight, once

arisen, destroy the darkness of ignorance and produce

the light of knowledge.”

Vis.M. III-XI gives full directions how to attain full

concentration and the absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) by

means of the following 40 meditation subjects

(kammaññhàna):

10 kasina-exercises (s. kasiõa). These produce the

4 absorptions.

10 loathsome subjects (asubha, q.v.). These produce

the 1st absorption.

10 recollections (anussati, q.v.): of the Buddha

(buddhànussati), the Doctrine (dhammànussati), the

Brotherhood of the Noble Ones (sanghànussati), morality,

liberality, the heavenly beings, death (maraõasati,

q.v.), the body (kàyagatàsati, q.v.), in-and-outbreathing

(ànàpàna-sati, q.v.) and peace (upasamànussati, q.v.).

– 69 –

Among these, the recollection (or mindfulness) of inand-

out breathing may produce all the 4 absorptions,

that of the body the 1st absorption, the rest only neighbourhood-

concentration (upacàra-samàdhi, s. samàdhi).

4 sublime abodes (brahma-vihàra, q.v.): lovingkindness,

compassion, altruistic joy, equanimity (mettà,

karuõà, mudità, upekkhà). Of these, the first 3 exercises

may produce 3 absorptions, the last one the 4th

absorption only.

4 immaterial spheres (aråpàyatana, s. jhàna): of

unbounded space, unbounded consciousness,

nothingness, neither-perception-nor-non-perception.

These are based upon the 4th absorption.

1 perception of the loathsomeness of food (àhàre

pañikkåla-sa¤¤à), which may produce neighbourhoodconcentration.

1 analysis of the 4 elements (catudhàtu-vavatthàna,

s. dhàtu-vavatthàna), which may produce

neighbourhood-concentration.

Mental development forms one of the 3 kinds of

meritorious action (pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu, q.v.). ‘Delight

in meditation’ (bhàvanà-ràmatà) is one of the noble

usages (ariya-vaüsa, q.v.).

bhàvanà-bala: s. pañisankhàna-bala.

bhàvanà-maya-pa¤¤à: wisdom based on mental

development’; s. pa¤¤à

bhavanga-santàna: ‘continuity of subconsciousness’;

s. santàna

bhavanga-sota and bhavanga-citta: The first term

may tentatively be rendered as the ‘undercurrent form-

70 –

ing the condition of being, or existence’, and the second

as ‘subconsciousness’, though, as will be evident from

the following, it differs in several respects from the

usage of that term in Western psychology. Bhavanga

(bhava-anga), which, in the canonical works, is mentioned

twice or thrice in the Paññhàna, is explained in

the Abhidhamma commentaries as the foundation or

condition (kàraõa) of existence (bhava), as the sine qua

non of life, having the nature of a process, lit. a flux or

stream (sota). Herein, since time immemorial, all impressions

and experiences are, as it were, stored up, or

better said, are functioning, but concealed as such tofull

consciousness, from where however they occasionally

emerge as subconscious phenomena and approach

the threshold of full consciousness, or crossing it become

fully conscious. This so-called ‘subconscious lifestream’

or undercurrent of life is that by which might be

explained the faculty of memory, paranormal psychic

phenomena, mental and physical growth, karma and

rebirth. etc. An alternative rendering is ‘life-continuum’.

It should be noted that bhavanga-citta is a karmaresultant

state of consciousness (vipàka, q.v.), and that,

in birth as a human or in higher forms of existence, it is

always the result of good, or wholesome karma

(kusala-kamma-vipàka), though in varying degrees of

strength (s. pañisandhi, end of the article). The same

holds true for rebirth consciousness (pañisandhi) and

death consciousness (cuti), which are only particular

manifestations of subconsciousness. In Vis.M. XIV it is

said:

“As soon as rebirth-consciousness (in the embryo at

the time of conception) has ceased, there arises a simi-

71 –

lar subconsciousness with exactly the same object, following

immediately upon rebirth-consciousness and

being the result of this or that karma (volitional action

done in a former birth and remembered there at the

moment before death). And again a further similar state

of subconsciousness arises. Now, as long as no other

consciousness arises to interrupt the continuity of the

life-stream, so long the life-stream, like the flow of a

river, rises in the same way again and again, even during

dreamless sleep and at other times. In this way one

has to understand the continuous arising of those states

of consciousness in the life-stream.” Cf. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

For more details, s. Fund. 11. (App.).

bhava-taõhà: ‘craving for (eternal) existence’;

s. taõhà.

bhavàsava: ‘canker of existence’; s. àsava.

bhayatupaññhàna-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in the

awareness of terror’, is one of those kinds of insightknowledge

that form the ‘purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi, VI.).

bhikkhu: A fully ordained disciple of the Buddha is

called a bhikkhu. “Mendicant monk” may be suggested

as the closest equivalent for “Bhikkhu”, literally it

means “he who begs” but bhikkhus do not beg. They

silently stand at the door for alms. They live on what is

spontaneously given by the supporters. He is not a

priest as he is no mediator between God and man. He

has no vows for life, but he is bound by his rules which

he takes of his own accord. He leads a life of voluntary

– 72 –

poverty and celibacy. If he is unable to live the Holy

Life, he can discard the robe at any time.

bhojane matta¤¤utà: ‘knowing the measure in

eating’.

“Now, O monks, the monk wisely reflecting partakes

of his almsfood, neither for pastime, nor for indulgence,

nor to become beautiful or handsome, but only

to maintain and support this body, to avoid harm and

to assist the holy life, knowing: ‘In this way I shall dispel

the former pain (of hunger, etc.) and no new pain

shall I let arise, and long life, blamelessness and ease

will be my share ‘ This, O monks, is knowing the measure

in eating.” (A. III. 16). “How O monks, would it be

possible for Nanda to lead the absolutely pure life of

holiness, if he did not watch over his senses and did not

know the measure in eating?” (A. VII, 9).

biases: s. àsava.

birth process: upapatti-bhava: s. bhava. Further

s. pañisandhi, jàti.

bodhi (from verbal root budhi, to awaken, to

understand): awakenment, enlightenment, supreme

knowledge. “(Through Bodhi) one awakens from the

slumber or stupor (inflicted upon the mind) by the

defilements (kilesa, q.v.) and comprehends the Four

Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.)” (Com. to M. 10).

The enlightenment of a Buddha is called sammàsambodhi

(q.v.) ‘perfect enlightenment’. The faith

(saddhà, q.v.) of a lay follower of the Buddha is described

as “he believes in the enlightenment of the

Perfect One” (saddahati Tathàgatassa bodhiü: M. 53,

A. III, 2).

– 73 –

As components of the state of enlightenment and

contributory factors to its achievement, are mentioned

in the texts: the 7 factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga (q.v.) =

bodhi-anga) and the 37 ‘things pertaining to enlightenment’

(bodhipakkhiya-dhammà, q.v.). In one of the

later books of the Sutta-Piñaka, the Buddhavaüsa,

10 bodhipàcana-dhammà are mentioned, i.e. qualities

that lead to the ripening of perfect enlightenment;

these are the 10 perfections (pàramã, q.v.).

There is a threefold classification of enlightenment:

1. that of a noble disciple (sàvaka-bodhi, q.v.). i.e. of an

Arahat, 2. of an Independently Enlightened One

(pacceka-bodhi, q.v.), and 3. of a Perfect Enlightened

One (sammà-sambodhi). This 3-fold division, however,

is of later origin, and in this form it neither occurs in the

canonical texts nor in the older Sutta commentaries.

The closest approximation to it is found in a verse sutta

which is probably of a comparatively later period, the

Treasure Store Sutta (Nidhikkanda Sutta) of the

Khuddakapàtha, where the following 3 terms are

mentioned in stanza 15: sàvaka-pàramã, pacceka-bodhi,

buddha-bhåmi (see Khp. Tr., pp. 247f.).

The commentaries (e.g. to M., Buddhavaüsa,

Cariyapiñaka) generally give a 4-fold explanation of the

word bodhi: 1. the tree of enlightenment, 2. the holy

path (ariya-magga), 3. Nibbàna, 4 omniscience (of the

Buddha: sabba¤¤utà-¤àõa). As to (2), the commentaries

quote Cula-Nidesa where bodhi is defined as the

knowledge relating to the 4 paths (of Stream-entry, etc.;

catåsu maggesu ¤àõa).

Neither in the canonical texts nor in the old

commentaries is it stated that a follower of the Buddha

– 74 –

may choose between the three kinds of enlightenment

and aspire either to become a Buddha, a Pacceka-

Buddha, or an Arahat-disciple. This conception of a

choice between three aspirations is, however, frequently

found in present-day Theravàda countries, e.g. in

Sri Lanka.

bodhipakkhiya-dhammà: The 37 ‘things pertaining to

enlightenment’, or ‘requisites of enlightenment’ comprise

the entire doctrines of the Buddha. They are:

the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.),

the 4 right efforts (s. padhàna),

the 4 roads to power (iddhi-pàda, q.v.),

the 5 spiritual faculties (indriya; s. bala),

the 5 spiritual powers (bala, q.v.),

the 7 factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.),

the Noble 8-fold Path (s. magga).

In M. 77 all the 37 bodhipakkhiya-dhammà are

enumerated and explained though not called by that

name. A detailed explanation of them is given in

Vis.M. XXII. In S.XLVII, 51, 67, only the five spiritual

faculties (indriya) are called bodhipakkhiya-dhammà;

and in the Jhàna Vibhanga, only the 7 factors of

enlightenment (bojjhanga).

See The Requisites of Enlightenment, by Ledi Sayadaw

(Wheel 169/172).

Bodhisatta: ‘Enlightenment Being’, is a being destined

to Buddhahood, a future Buddha. According to the

traditional belief a Bodhisatta, before reaching his last

birth as a Buddha on this earth, is living in the Tusitaheaven

(s. deva), the heaven of bliss. Cf. A. IV, 127; VIII, 70.

– 75 –

In the Pàli Canon and commentaries, the designation

‘Bodhisatta’ is given only to Prince Siddhattha before

his enlightenment and to his former existences.

The Buddha himself uses this term when speaking of his

life prior to enlightenment (e.g. M. 4, M. 26). Bodhisattahood

is neither mentioned nor recommended as an

ideal higher than or alternative to Arahatship; nor is

there any record in the Pàli scriptures of a disciple

declaring it as his aspiration. – See bodhi.

bodily action (wholesome or unwholesome);

s. karma, karma formations – Right b.a. = sammàkammanta;

s. magga.

bodily postures, the 4: iriyà-patha (q.v.)

body: kàya (q.v.) Contemplation on the b. is one of the

4 satipaññhàna (q.v.).

body-witness: kàya-sakkhi (q.v.).

bojjhanga: ‘the 7 factors of enlightenment’, are: mindfulness

(sati-sambojjhanga; s. sati), investigation of the

law (dhamma-vicaya-sambojjhanga), energy (viriyasambojjhanga;

s. viriya, padhàna), rapture (pãtisambojjhanga,

q.v.) tranquillity (passaddhisambojjhanga,

q.v.), concentration (samàdhisambojjhanga,

q.v.), equanimity (upekkhà, q.v.).

“Because they lead to enlightenment, therefore they

are called factors of enlightenment” (S. XLVI, 5).

Though in the 2nd factor, dhamma-vicaya, the

word dhamma is taken by most translators to stand for

the Buddhist doctrine, it probably refers to the bodily

and mental phenomena (nàma-råpa-dhammà) as presented

to the investigating mind by mindfulness, the 1st

– 76 –

factor. With that interpretation, the term may be rendered

by ‘investigation of phenomena’.

In A.X. 102, the 7 factors are said to be the means

of attaining the threefold wisdom (s. tevijjà).

They may be attained by means of the 4 foundations

of mindfulness (satipaññhàna, q.v.), as it is said in

S. XLVI, 1 and explained in M. 118:

(1) “Whenever, O monks, the monk dwells contemplating

the body (kàya), feeling (vedanà), mind

(citta) and mind-objects (dhammà), strenuous, clearlyconscious,

mindful, after subduing worldly greed and

grief, at such a time his mindfulness is present and

undisturbed; and whenever his mindfulness is present

and undisturbed, at such a time he has gained and is

developing the factor of enlightenment ‘mindfulness’

(sati-sambojjhanga), and thus this factor of enlightenment

reaches fullest perfection.

(2) “Whenever, while dwelling with mindfulness,

he wisely investigates, examines and thinks over the

law… at such a time he has gained and is developing

the factor of enlightenment ‘investigation of the law’

(dhamma-vicaya°)….

(3) “Whenever, while wisely investigating his

energy is firm and unshaken… at such a time he has

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘energy’ (viriya°)….

(4) “Whenever in him, while firm in energy, arises

supersensuous rapture… at such a time he has gained

and is developing the factor of enlightenment ‘rapture’

(pãti°)….

(5) “Whenever, while enraptured in mind, his body

and his mind become composed… at such a time he has

– 77 –

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘tranquillity’ (passaddhi°).

(6) “Whenever, while being composed in his body

and happy, his mind becomes concentrated… at such a

time he has gained and is developing the factor of

enlightenment ‘concentration’ (samàdhi°)

(7) “Whenever he looks with complete indifference

on his mind thus concentrated… at such a time he has

gained and is developing the factor of enlightenment

‘equanimity’ (upekkhà).

Literature: Bojjhanga Saüyutta (S. XLVI); Bojjhanga

Vibh. – For the conditions leading to the arising of each of

the factors, see the Com. to Satipaññhàna Sutta (Way of

Mindfulness, by Soma Thera; 3rd ed., 1967, BPS). Further,

The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, by Piyadassi Thera

(Wheel 1.)

bondages, mental: cetaso vinibandha (q.v.).

bonds, the 4: yoga (q.v.).

both-ways liberated, s. ubhato-bhàga-vimutta,

ariyapuggala B. 4.

boundless consciousness (and b. space), Sphere of:

s. jhàna 5, 6.

brahma-cariya: ‘pure (chaste) or holy life’, is a term

for the life of the monk. Also a lay-devotee who observes

the 8 moral precepts (sikkhàpada, q.v.), takes as

the third precept the vow of chastity, i.e. full abstention

from sexual relations. The highest aim and purpose of

b. is, according to M. 29, the ‘unshakable deliverance of

mind’ (akuppà ceto-vimutti).

– 78 –

brahma-kàyika-deva: The ‘heavenly beings of the

Brahma-world’ inhabit the first 3 heavens of the finematerial

world, (råpaloka), corresponding to the 1st

absorption (jhàna, q.v.). The highest ruler of them is

called the Great Brahma (Mahà-Brahmà). With caustic

humor he is said (D. 11) to pretend: “I am Brahma, the

Great Brahmà, the Most High, the Invincible One, the

Omniscient One, the Ruler, the Lord, the Creator, the

Maker, the Perfect One, the Preserver, the Controller,

the Father of all that was and will be.” Cf. deva (II. 1-3).

brahma-loka: ‘Brahma-world’, in the widest sense, is a

name for the fine-material (råpa-loka) and immaterial

world (aråpa-loka); in a narrower sense, however, only

for the first three heavens of the fine-material world.

Cf. Brahma-kàyika-deva.

brahma-vihàra: the 4 ‘sublime’ or ‘divine abodes’, also

called the 4 boundless states (appama¤¤à), are: lovingkindness

(mettà), compassion (karuõà), altruistic (or

sympathetic) joy (mudità), equanimity (upekkhà).

The stereotype text on the development of these

4 sublime abodes (brahma-vihàra-bhàvanà;

s. bhàvanà), often met with in the Suttas,- is as follows:

“There, O monks, the monk with a mind full of lovingkindness

pervading first one direction, then a second

one, then a third one, then the fourth one, just so

above, below and all around; and everywhere

identifying himself with all, he is pervading the whole

world with mind full of loving-kindness, with mind

wide, developed, unbounded, free from hate and ill-

79 –

will.” Hereafter follows the same theme with compassion,

altruistic joy, and equanimity.

Literature: Detailed explanation in Vis.M. IX. – For texts

s. “Path”, 97ff; texts on mettà in The Practice of Loving

Kindness, by ¥ànamoli Thera (Wheel 7). – The Four

Sublime States, by Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel 6). –

Brahma Vihàra, by Narada Thera (Vajirarama, Colombo,

1962).

breathing, mindfulness of in-and-out-breathing

ànàpànasati (q.v.).

Buddha: s. sammà-sambodhi.

buddhànussati: ‘recollection of the Enlightened One’;

s. anussati.

Buddha-sàsana: s. sàsana.

– 80 –

C

càga: ‘liberality’, is one of the ‘blessings’ (s. sampadà),

‘foundations’ (s. adhiññhàna), ‘recollections’

(s. anussati), ‘treasures’ (s. dhana).

cakka: ‘wheel’, is one of the seven ‘precious possessions’

(ratana) of a righteous World Emperor

(cakkavatti: ‘He who owns the Wheel,’ cf. D. 26), and

symbolizes conquering progress and expanding

sovereignty. From that derives the figurative expression

dhamma-cakkaü pavatteti, ‘he sets rolling the Wheel of

the Law’ and the name of the Buddha’s first sermon,

Dhamma-cakkappavattana Sutta (s. dhamma-cakka).

Another figurative meaning of C. is ‘blessing’. There

are 4 such ‘auspicious wheels’ or ‘blessings’: living in a

suitable locality, company of good people, meritorious

acts done in the past, right inclinations (A. IV, 31).

Bhava-cakka, ‘wheel of existence’, or of life, is a

name for ‘dependent origination’ (s. pañiccasamuppàda).

See The Buddhist Wheel Symbol, by T. B. Karunaratne

(Wheel 137/138); The Wheel of Birth and Death, by

Bhikkhu Khantipalo (Wheel 147/149)

cakkh’ àyatana: ‘the base “visual organ” ’ (s. àyatana).

cakkhu: ‘eye’ s. àyatana. – The foll. 5 kinds of ‘eyes’ are

mentioned and explained in CNid. (PTS, p. 235; the

first 3 also in It. 52): 1. the physical eye (maüsa

– 81 –

cakkhu), 2. the divine eye (dibba-cakkhu; s. abhi¤¤à),

3. the eye of wisdom (pa¤¤à-cakkhu), 4 the eye of a

Buddha (Buddha-c.), 5. the eye of all-round knowledge

(samanta-c.; a frequent appellation of the Buddha).

cakkhu-dhàtu: ‘the element “visual organ” ’ (s. dhàtu).

cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa: ‘eye-consciousness’ (s. vi¤¤àõa).

cankers: s. àsava.

caraõa: s. vijjà-caraõa.

carita: ‘nature, character’. In Vis.M. III there are explained

six types of men: the greedy-natured (ràgacarita),

the hate-natured (dosa-carita), the stupid or

dull-natured (moha-carita), the faithful-natured

(saddhà-carita), the intelligent-natured (buddhi-carita),

the ruminating-natured (vitakka-carita). – (App.).

càritta- and vàritta-sãla: ‘morality consisting in

performance and morality consisting in avoidance,’

means “the performance of those moral rules which the

Blessed one has ordained to be followed, and the

avoidance of those things that the Blessed One has

rejected as not to be followed” (Vis.M. III). – (App.).

catu-dhàtu-vavatthàna: ‘analysis of the four

elements’; s. dhàtu-vavatthàna.

catu-mahàràjika-deva a class of heavenly beings of

the sensuous sphere; s. deva.

catu-pàrisuddhi-sãla: s. sãla.

– 82 –

catu-vokàra-bhava: ‘four-group existence’, is the existence

in the immaterial world (aråpa-loka; s. loka), since

only the four mental groups (feeling, perception, mental

formations, consciousness, s. khandha) are found

there, the corporeality group being absent. Cf. pa¤cavokàra-

bhava, eka-vokàra-bhava. (App.: vokàra).

cause: cf. paccaya (1). – For the five c. of existence,

s. pañicca-samuppàda (10).

cemetery: ascetic practice of living in a c.; s. dhutanga.

cemetery-meditations: s. sãvathikà.

cetanà: ‘volition’, will, is one of the seven mental

factors (cetasika, q.v.) inseparably bound up with all

consciousness, namely sensorial or mental impression

(phassa), feeling (vedanà), perception (sa¤¤à), volition

(cetanà), concentration (samàdhi), vitality (jãvita),

advertence (manasikàra). Cf. Tab. II, III.

With regard to karmical volition (i.e. wholesome or

unwholesome karma) it is said in A. VI, 13: “Volition is

action (karma), thus I say, O monks; for as soon as volition

arises, one does the action, be it by body, speech

or mind.” For details, s. pañicca-samuppàda (10), karma.

cetasika: ‘mental things, mental factors’, are those

mental concomitants which are bound up with the

simultaneously arising consciousness (citta = vi¤¤àõa)

and conditioned by its presence. Whereas in the Suttas

all phenomena of existence are summed up under the

aspect of 5 groups: corporeality, feeling, perception,

mental formations, consciousness (s. khandha), the

Abhidhamma as a rule treats them under the more

– 83 –

philosophical 3 aspects: consciousness, mental factors

and corporeality (citta, cetasika, råpa). Thus, of these

3 aspects, the mental factors (cetasika) comprise feeling,

perception and the 50 mental formations, altogether

52 mental concomitants. Of these, 25 are lofty

qualities (either karmically wholesome or neutral),

14 karmically unwholesome, while 13 are as such

karmically neutral, their karmical quality depending on

whether they are associated with wholesome, unwholesome

or neutral consciousness. For details s. Tab. II, III.

Cf. prec. (App.)

cetaso vinibandha: ‘mental bondages’, are 5 things

which hinder the mind from making right exertion,

namely: lust for sensuous objects, for the body, for

visible things, for eating and sleeping, and leading the

monk’s life for the sake of heavenly rebirth. For details,

s. A.V, 205; X, 14; D. 33; M. 16. Cf. foll.

cetokhila: ‘mental obduracies’, are 5 things which

stiffen and hinder the mind from making right exertion,

namely: doubt about the Master, about the Doctrine,

about the (holy) Brotherhood, about the training, and

anger against one’s fellow-monks. For details s. A.V,

206, X, 14; D. 33; M. 16. Cf. prec.

ceto-pariya-¤àõa: ‘penetrating knowledge of the mind

(of others)’, is one of the 6 higher powers (abhi¤¤à

3, q.v.).

ceto-vimutti: ‘deliverance of mind’. In the highest

sense it signifies the fruition of Arahatship (s. ariyapuggala),

and in particular, the concentration associated

with it. It is often linked with the ‘deliverance

– 84 –

through wisdom’ (pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.), e.g. in the ten

powers of a Perfect One (s. dasa-bala). See vimokkha I.

It is also called ‘unshakable deliverance of mind’

(akuppa-c.); further ‘boundless d. of m. (appamàõa-c.);

‘d. of m. from the conditions of existence, or signless

d. of m.’ (animittà-c.); ‘d. of m. from the appendages’

(àkinca¤¤a-c.), since that state of mind is free from the

3 bonds, conditions and appendants, i.e. from greed,

hatred and ignorance; and since it is void thereof, it is

called the ‘void deliverance of mind’ (su¤¤atà-c.)

In a more restricted sense, ‘boundless deliverance

of mind’ is a name for the 4 boundless states, i.e. lovingkindness,

compassion, altruistic joy and equanimity

(s. brahma-vihàra); ‘d. of m. from the appendages’

stands for the ‘sphere of nothingness’ (àki¤ca¤¤àyatana

s. jhàna 7); ‘d. of mind from the conditions of existence’,

for d. of mind due to non-attention to all conditions

of existence; ‘void d. of m’ for d. of m. due to contemplating

voidness of self. For further details, s. M. 43.

chaë-abhi¤¤à: the 6 ‘higher powers’; s. abhi¤¤à.

chaë-abhi¤¤o: an Arahat who is a ‘possessor of the

6 higher powers’ (s. abhi¤¤à).

chanda: intention, desire, will.

1. As an ethically neutral psychological term, in the

sense of ‘intention’, it is one of those general mental

factors (cetasika, q.v. Tab. II) taught in the Abhidhamma,

the moral quality of which is determined by

the character of the volition (cetanà, q.v.) associated

therewith. The Com. explains it as ‘a wish to do’ (kattu–

85 –

kamyatà-chanda). If intensified, it acts also as a

‘predominance condition’ (s. paccaya 3).

2. As an evil quality it has the meaning of ‘desire’,

and is frequently coupled with terms for ‘sensuality’,

‘greed’, etc., for instance: kàma-cchanda, ‘sensuous

desire’, one of the 5 hindrances (s. nãvaraõa); chandaràga,

‘lustful desire’ (s. kàma). It is one of the 4 wrong

paths (s. agati).

3. As a good quality it is a righteous will or zeal

(dhamma-chanda) and occurs, e.g. in the formula of the

4 right efforts (s. padhàna): “The monk rouses his will

(chandaü janeti)….” If intensified, it is one of the

4 roads to power (s. iddhipàda).

change, contemplation of: one of the 18 chief kinds of

insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

chaos: cf. kappa.

character: On the 6 kinds of human character,

s. carita.

characteristics of existence, the. 3: ti-lakkhaõa (q.v.).

chaste life: brahma-cariya (q.v.).

chief-elements, the 4: mahà-bhåta (q.v.) –

dhàtu (q.v.).

cintà-maya-pa¤¤à: ‘Wisdom (or knowledge) based on

thinking’, s. pa¤¤à.

citta: ‘mind’, ‘consciousness’, ‘state of consciousness’, is

a synonym of mano (q.v.) and vi¤¤àõa (s. khandha and

– 86 –

Tab. 1). Dhs. divides all phenomena into consciousness

(citta), mental concomitants (cetasika, q.v.) and

corporeality (råpa).

In adhicitta, ‘higher mentality’, it signifies the concentrated,

quietened mind, and is one of the 3 trainings

(s. sikkhà). The concentration (or intensification) of

consciousness is one of the 4 roads to power

(s. iddhipàda).

citta-ja (citta-samuññhàna)-råpa: ‘mind-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

citta-kamma¤¤atà, °lahutà, °mudutà, °pagu¤¤atà,

°passaddhi, °ujukatà; s. Tab. II.

citta-kkhaõa: ‘consciousness-moment’, is the time

occupied by one single stage in the perceptual process

or cognitive series (cittavãthi; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca). This

moment again is subdivided into the genetic (uppàda),

static (ñhiti) and dissolving (bhanga) moment. One

such moment is said in the commentaries to be of

inconceivably short duration and to last not longer

than the billionth part of the time occupied by a flash

of lightning. However that may be, we ourselves know

from experience that it is possible within one single

second to dream of innumerable things and events. In

A. I, 10 it is said: “Nothing, O monks, do I know that

changes so rapidly as consciousness. Scarcely anything

may be found that could be compared with this so

rapidly changing consciousness.” (App. khaõa).

– 87 –

cittànupassanà: ‘contemplation of consciousness’, is

one of the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.)

citta-samuññhàna-råpa: ‘mind-produced

corporeality’; s. samuññhàna.

citta-sankhàra: s. sankhàra.

citta-santàna: ‘consciousness-continuity’; s. santàna.

cittass’ekaggatà: ‘one-pointedness of mind’, is a

synonym of concentration, or samàdhi (q.v.)

citta-vipallàsa: ‘perversion of mind’; s. vipallàsa.

citta-visuddhi: ‘purification of mind’, is the 2nd of the

7 stages of purification (visuddhi, II,. q.v.).

citta-vãthi: ‘process of consciousness’; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

citt’ekaggatà = cittass’ekaggatà (q.v.).

clarity of consciousness: sampaja¤¤a (q.v.).

clinging, the 4 kinds of: upàdàna (q.v.).

cognitive series: s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

companionship: Influence of good and bad° =

samseva (q.v.).

compassion: karuõà; s. brahma-vihàra.

comprehension: clear c.: s. sampaja¤¤a. – c. in insight,

s. sammasana. – As an alternative tr. for full

understanding, s. pari¤¤à.

– 88 –

co-nascence: sahajàta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

conceit: màna (q.v.); further s. saüyojana.

concentration: samàdhi (q.v.) – right°, s. sacca (IV. 8),

magga (8). – wrong°, s. micchà-magga (8).

conception 1. thought-c°: cf. vitakka-vicàra.

conception 2. (in the mother’s womb): okkanti (q.v.).

conditions, the 24: paccaya (q.v.).

conditions of existence, deliverance from the: see

ceto-vimutti; vimokkha.

confidence: s. saddhà.

consciousness: vi¤¤àõa (s. khandha), citta (q.v.),

mano (q.v.) – Moment of°: citta-kkhana (q.v.).

Contemplation of°: cittànupassanà: s. satipaññhàna –

Corporeality produced by°: citta-ja-råpa, s. samutthàna

– Abodes or supports of°:

cf. vi¤¤àõatthiti (q.v.) Functions of°: vi¤¤àõakicca

(q.v.).

contemplation: s. anupassanà.

contentedness (with whatever robe, etc.) belongs to

the noble usages: ariya-vamsa (q.v.).

contentment: appicchatà, is one of the ascetic virtues.

Cf. A. X, 181-90.

contiguity: samanantara-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

– 89 –

continuity (of body, subconsciousness, consciousness

or groups of existence): santàna (q.v.).

control, effort of: s. padhàna.

conventional (expression or truth): s. desanà.

corporeality: produced through consciousness, karma,

etc.; s. samuññhàna. – Sensitive c.: pasàda-råpa. (q.v.).

corporeality and mind: s. nàma-råpa.

corporeality-group: råpa-kkhandha: s. khandha.

corporeality-perceptions: råpa-sa¤¤à: s. jhàna.

corruptions: s. upakkilesa.

cosmogony: cf. kappa.

counteractive karma: upapãëaka-kamma; s. karma.

counter-image (during concentration): s. nimitta,

kasiõa, samàdhi.

course of action (wholesome or unwholesome):

kammapatha (q.v.).

covetousness: abhijjhà (q.v.); further s. kamma-patha (1).

cowardice: s. agati.

craving: taõhà (q.v.), ràga (q.v.); further s. måla.

created, the: sankhata (q.v.).

cuti-citta: ‘death-consciousness’, lit. ‘departing

consciousness’, is one of the 14 functions of

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca q.v.).

– 90 –

cutåpapàta-¤àõa: the ‘knowledge of the vanishing

and reappearing’ (of beings) is identical with the divine

eye; s. abhi¤¤à.

cycle of existence: s. saüsarà, vañña.

– 91 –

D

dàna: ‘almsgiving’, liberality, offering. “He who gives

alms, bestows a fourfold blessing: he helps to long life,

good appearance, happiness and strength. Therefore

long life, good appearance, happiness and strength will

be his share, whether amongst heavenly beings or

amongst men” (A. IV, 57).

“Five blessings accrue to the giver of alms: the

affection of many, noble association, good reputation,

self-confidence, and heavenly rebirth” (see A. V, 34).

Seven further blessings are given in A. VII, 54.

Liberality, especially the offering of robes, food,

etc., to the monks, is highly praised in all Buddhist

countries of Southern Asia as a fundamental virtue and

as a means to suppress man’s inborn greed and egoism.

But, as in any other good or bad action, so also in

offering gifts, it is the noble intention and volition that

really counts as the action, not the mere outward deed.

Almsgiving or liberality (dàna), constitutes the first.

kind of meritorious activity, the two others being

morality (sãla, q.v.) and mental development

(bhàvanà); s. pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu. Liberality (càga)

forms one of the 10 recollections (anussati, q.v.) and

almsgiving one of the 10 perfections (s. pàramã).

dasa-(tathàgata-) bala: ‘the ten powers (of a Perfect

One); or, he who Possesses the 10 P.’, i.e. the Buddha.

About him it is said (e.g., M. 12.; A. X, 21):

– 92 –

“There, O monks, the Perfect One understands

according to reality the possible as possible, and the

impossible as impossible… the result of past, present

and future actions… the path leading to the welfare of

all… the world with its many different elements… the

different inclinations in beings… the lower and higher

faculties in beings… the defilement, purity and rising

with regard to the absorptions, deliverances, concentration

and attainments… remembering many former

rebirths… perceiving with the divine eye how beings

vanish and reappear again according to their actions

(karma)… gaining, through extinction of all taints,

possession of ‘deliverance of mind’ and ‘deliverance

through wisdom’….”

dasaka-kalàpa: s. råpa-kalàpa.

dasa-pàramã: s. pàramã.

dasa-pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu: s. pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu.

death: maraõa (q.v.) – Contemplation of°:

maranànussati (q.v.) – As divine messenger: devadåta

(q.v.).

death-consciousness: cuti-citta, is one of the

14 functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõa-kicca, q.v.).

deathlessness: amata (q.v.).

death-proximate karma: maraõàsa¤¤à-kamma;

s. karma.

deciding function (of consciousness): s. vi¤¤àõakicca.

– 93 –

decline (in morality, wisdom, etc.): s. hàna-bhàgiyasãla.

– Liable to°, parihàna-dhamma (q.v.).

defilements: s. kilesa, upakkilesa. –10 d. of insight:

vipassanåpakkilesa, s. visuddhi VI. – Round of d.,

s. vañña (1).

deliverance: s. vimutti, vimokkha. – The 8 kinds of d.

(or liberation), s. vimokkha. – D. of mind, d. through

voidness, boundless d. etc., s. ceto-vimutti. – Desire

for d., s. visuddhi (VI, 6). – D. through wisdom; pa¤¤àvimutti

(q.v.). – 3 doors of d. (or gateways of

liberation) s. visuddhi (VI, 8).

deluded consciousness: s. Tab. I. 32, 33.

deluded-natured: moha-carita; s. carita.

delusion: s. moha, avijjà.

demons’ realm: asura-nikàya; s. apàya.

departed, the spirits of the: peta (q.v.).

dependent origination: pañicca samuppàda (q.v.).

derived corporeality: upàdà-råpa (q.v.); further

s. khandha (I. B.).

desanà: ‘exposition’ of the doctrine, may be either an

exposition true in the highest sense (paramatthadesanà);

or it may not be true in the highest, but only in

the conventional sense (vohàra-desanà). See

paramattha.

desire for deliverance: s. visuddhi (VI, 6).

– 94 –

desireless deliverance: s. vimokkha (1).

desirelessness, contemplation on: s. vipassanà (12).

destiny, evil views with fixed d.: niyata-micchàdiññhi

(q.v.). Men with fixed d.: niyata-puggala (q.v.).

See gati.

destruction: overcoming, or liberation from, evil

things through their d.; samuccheda-pahàna or

samuccheda-vimutti; s. pahàna.

destructive karma: upaghàtaka-kamma; s. karma.

detachment: viveka (q.v.).

determination: s. adhimokkha, adhiññhàna.

determining: votthapana (s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca).

determining the reality: s. vavatthàna.

deva (lit: the Radiant Ones; related to Lat. deus):

heavenly beings, deities, celestials, are beings who live

in happy worlds, and who, as a rule, are invisible to the

human eye. They are subject, however, just like all

human and other beings, to ever-repeated rebirth, old

age and death, and thus are not freed from the cycle of

existence and from misery. There are many classes of

heavenly beings.

I. The 6 classes of heavenly beings of the sensuous

sphere (kàmàvacara or kàma-loka; s. avacara loka), are

Càtumahàràjika-deva, Tàvatiüsa, Yàma, Tusita

(s. Bodhisatta), Nimmàna-rati, Paranimmita-vasavatti.

Cf. anussati. (6).

– 95 –

II. The heavenly beings of the fine-material sphere

(råpàvacara or råpaloka) are:

1. Brahma-pàrisajja, Brahma-purohita, Mahàbrahmàno

(s. brahma-kàyika-deva). Amongst these

3 classes will be reborn those with a weak, medium or

full experience of the 1st absorption (jhàna, q.v.).

2. Parittàbha, Appamàõàbha, âbhassara. Here will

be reborn those with experience of the 2nd absorption.

3. Paritta-subha, Appamàõa-subha, Subha-kiõõa (or

kiõha). Here will be reborn those with experience of

the 3rd absorption.

4. Vehapphala, Asa¤¤a-satta (q.v.), Suddhàvàsa

(q.v.; further s. Anàgàmi). Amongst the first 2 classes

will be reborn those with experience of the 4th

absorption, but amongst the 3rd class only

Anàgàmis (q.v.).

III. The 4 grades of heavenly beings of the immaterial

sphere (aråpàvacara or aråpa-loka) are: the

heavenly beings of the sphere of unbounded space

(àkàsàna¤càyatanåpaga-devà), of unbounded

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa¤càyatanåpaga-deva), of

nothingness (àki¤ca¤¤àyatanåpaga devà), of neitherperception-

nor- non-perception (nevasa¤¤ànàsa¤¤

àyatanåpaga-devà). Here will be reborn those

with experience of the 4 immaterial spheres

(aråpàyatana; s. jhàna 5-8).

See Gods and the Universe by Francis Story

(Wheel 180/181).

deva-dåta: ‘divine messengers’, is a symbolic name for

old age, disease and death, since these three things

– 96 –

remind man of his future and rouse him to earnest

striving. In A. III, 35, it is said:

“Did you, O man, never see in the world a man or a

woman eighty, ninety or a hundred years old, frail,

crooked as a gable-roof, bent down, resting on

crutches, with tottering steps, infirm, youth long since

fled, with broken teeth, grey and scanty hair, or baldheaded,

wrinkled, with blotched limbs? And did it

never occur to you that you also are subject to old age,

that you also cannot escape it?

“Did you never see in the world a man or a woman,

who being sick, afflicted and grievously ill, and wallowing

in their own filth, was lifted up by some people, and

put down by others? And did it never occur to you that

you also are subject to disease, that you also cannot

escape it?

“Did you never see in the world the corpse of a

man or a woman, one or two or three days after death,

swollen up, blue-black in colour, and full of corruption?

And did it never occur to you that you also are

subject to death, that you also cannot escape it?” – See

M. 130.

devatànussati: ‘recollection of the heavenly beings’;

s. anussati.

development (mental): bhàvanà (q.v.). – Effort to

develop, s. padhàna. – Wisdom based on d. s. pa¤¤à. –

Gradual d. of the Eightfold Path in the ‘progress of the

disciple’ (q.v.).

deviation: (from morality and understanding):

vipatti (q.v.).

– 97 –

devotee: upàsaka (q.v.).

dhamma: lit. the ‘bearer’, constitution (or nature of a

thing), norm, law (jus), doctrine; justice, righteousness;

quality; thing, object of mind (s. àyatana) ‘phenomenon’.

In all these meanings the word ‘dhamma’ is to be

met with in the texts. The Com. to D. instances

4 applications of this term guõa (quality, virtue), desanà

(instruction), pariyatti (text), nijjãvatà (soullessness,

e.g. “all dhammà, phenomena, are impersonal,” etc.).

The Com. to Dhs. has hetu (condition) instead of

desanà. Thus, the analytical knowledge of the law

(s. pañisambhidà) is explained in Vis.M. XIV. and in

Vibh. as hetumhi-¤àõa, knowledge of the conditions.

The Dhamma, as the liberating law discovered and

proclaimed by the Buddha, is summed up in the

4 Noble Truths (s. sacca). It forms one of the 3 Gems

(ti-ratana, q.v.) and one of the 10 recollections

(anussati q.v.).

Dhamma, as object of mind (dhammàyatana,

s. àyatana) may be anything past, present or future,

corporeal or mental, conditioned or not

(cf. sankhàra, 4), real or imaginary.

dhamma-cakka: The ‘Wheel (realm) of the Law’, is a

name for the doctrine ‘set rolling’ (established) by the

Buddha, i.e. the 4 Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.).

“The Perfect One, O monks, the Holy One, fully

Enlightened One, in the Deer Park at Isipatana near

– 98 –

Benares, has set rolling (established) the unsurpassed

Wheel (realm) of the Law” (M. 141). Cf. cakka.

dhamma-desanà: ‘exposition of the Doctrine (law)’;

s. desanà.

dhamma-dhàtu: mind-object-element (s. dhàtu).

dhammànupassanà: ‘contemplation of the mindobjects’

is the last of the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna, q.v.)

dhammànusàrã: the ‘dhamma-devotee’, is one of the

7 noble disciples (ariya-puggala, q.v.).

dhammànussati: ‘recollection of the Law’, is one of

the 10 recollections (anussati, q.v.).

dhamma-pañisambhidà: the ‘analytical knowledge of

the law, is one of the 4 kinds of analytical knowledge

(pañisambhidà, q.v.).

dhamma-ññhiti-¤àõa: ‘knowledge of the fixity of law,

is a name for that ‘insight which is leading up’ to the

entrance into one of the 4 supermundane paths

(vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà, q.v.). In the Susima Sutta

(S. XII, 70) this (ascending) insight is called the

‘knowledge of the fixity of the law’, namely: “At first,

Susima, there exists the knowledge of the fixity of the

law, and later the knowledge of Nibbàna.” (See

Vis.M. XXI.)

dhamma-vicaya-sambojjhanga: ‘investigation of the

law as factor of enlightenment’, is one of the 7 factors

of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.).

– 99 –

dhammàyatana: ‘mind-object as base’ (àyatana, q.v.).

dhana: ‘treasures’, a term for the following 7 qualities:

faith, morality, moral shame, moral dread, learning,

liberality and wisdom. Cf. A. VII, 5, 6.

See ‘Treasures of the Noble’, by Soma Thera (Bodhi

Leaves B. 27, BPS).

dhàtu: ‘elements’, are the ultimate constituents of a

whole.

(I) The 4 physical elements (dhàtu or mahà-bhåta),

popularly called earth, water, fire and wind, are to be

understood as the primary qualities of matter. They are

named in Pàli: pañhavã-dhàtu, àpo-dhàtu, tejo-dhàtu, and

vàyo-dhàtu. In Vis.M. XI, 2 the four elements are

defined thus: “Whatever is characterized by hardness

(thaddha-lakkkhaõa) is the earth or solid-element; by

cohesion (àbandhana) or fluidity, the water-element;

by heating (paripàcana), the fire or heat-element; by

strengthening or supporting (vitthambhana), the wind

or motion-element. All four are present in every

material object, though in varying degrees of strength.

If, for instance, the earth element predominates, the

material object is called ‘solid’, etc. – For the analysis of

the 4 elements, s. dhàtu-vavatthàna.

(II) The 18 physical and mental elements that

constitute the conditions or foundations of the process

of perception, are:

1. visual organ (eye) 11. eye-consciousness

2. auditory organ (ear) 12. ear-consciousness

3. olfactory organ (nose) 13. nose-consciousness

4. gustatory organ (tongue) 14. tongueconsciousness

– 100 –

5. tactile organ (body) 15. body-consciousness

6. visible object 16. mind-element

(mano-dhàtu)

7. sound or audible object 17. mind-object

8. odour or olfactive object (dhamma-dhàtu)

9. gustative object 18. mind-consciousness

10. body-impression element (mano-vi¤¤àõa-dhàtu)

1-10 are physical; 11-16 and 18 are mental; 17

may be either physical or mental. – 16 performs the

function of advertence (àvajjana) towards the object at

the inception of a process of sensuous consciousness; it

further performs the function of receiving

(sampañicchana) the sensuous object. 18 performs, e.g.,

the function of investigation (santãraõa), determining

(votthapana) and registering (tadàrammaõa) – (for its

other functions, s. Table I). For the 14 functions of

consciousness, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

Cf. M. 115; S. XIV and especially Vibh. II

(Guide p. 28f), Vis.M. XV, 17ff.

Of the many further groupings of elements

(enumerated in M. 115), the best known is that of the

3 world-elements: the sensuous world (kàma-dhàtu),

the fine-material world (råpa-dhàtu), the immaterial

world (aråpa-dhàtu); further the sixfold group: the

solid, liquid, heat, motion, space, consciousness

(pañhavã, àpo, tejo, vàyo, àkàsa, vi¤¤àõa; s. above I),

described in M. 140; see also M. 112.

dhàtu-vavatthàna: ‘analysis (or determining) of the

4 elements’, is described in Vis.M. XI, 2, as the last of

the 40 mental exercises (s. bhàvanà). In a condensed

form this exercise is handed down in D. 22 and M. 10

(s. satipaññhàna), but in detail explained in M. 28,

– 101 –

62, 140. The simile of the butcher in M. 10 (“Just,

O monks, as a skilled butcher or butcher’s apprentice,

after having slaughtered a cow and divided it into

separate portions, should sit down at the junction of

four highroads; just so does the disciple contemplate

this body with regard to the elements”) is thus explained

in Vis.M. XI.: “To the butcher, who rears the cow,

brings it to the slaughter-house, ties it, puts it there,

slaughters it, or looks at the slaughtered and dead cow,

the idea ‘cow’ does not disappear as long as he has not

yet cut the body open and taken it to pieces. As soon,

however, as he sits down, after having cut it open and

taken it to pieces, the idea ‘cow’ disappears to him, and

the idea ‘meat’ arises. And he does not think: ‘A cow do

I sell, or ‘A cow do they buy.’ Just so, when the monk

formerly was still an ignorant worldling, layman or a

homeless one, the ideas ‘living being’ or ‘man’ or

‘individual’ had not yet disappeared as long as he had

not taken this body, whatever position or direction it

had, to pieces and analysed it piece by piece. As soon,

however, as he analysed this body into its elements, the

idea ‘living being’ disappeared to him, and his mind

became established in the contemplation of the

elements.” – (App.).

dhutanga: (lit. ‘means of shaking off (the defilements)’);

‘means of purification’, ascetic or austere

practices. These are strict observances recommended

by the Buddha to monks as a help to cultivate contentedness,

renunciation, energy and the like. One or more

of them may be observed for a shorter or longer period

of time.

– 102 –

“The monk training himself in morality should take

upon himself the means of purification, in order to gain

those virtues through which the purity of morality will

become accomplished, to wit: fewness of needs, contentedness,

austerity, detachment, energy, moderation,

etc.” (Vis.M. II).

Vis.M. II describes 13 dhutangas, consisting in the

vows of

1. wearing patched-up robes: paüsukålik’anga,

2. wearing only three robes: tecãvarik’anga,

3. going for alms: piõóapàtik’anga,

4. not omitting any house whilst going for alms:

sapadànikanga,

5. eating at one sitting: ekàsanik’anga,

6. eating only from the alms-bowl:

pattapiõóik’anga,

7. refusing all further food: khalu-pacchàbhattik’anga,

8. living in the forest: àra¤¤ik’anga,

9. living under a tree: rukkha-målik’anga,

10. living in the open air: abbhokàsik’anga,

11. living in a cemetery: susànik’anga,

12. being satisfied with whatever dwelling: yathàsanthatik’anga,

13. sleeping in the sitting position (and never

lying down): nesajjik’anga.

These 13 exercises are all, without exception,

mentioned in the old sutta texts (e.g. M. 5, 113; A.V.,

181-90), but never together in one and the same place.

“Without doubt, O monks, it is a great advantage to

live in the forest as a hermit, to collect one’s alms, to

– 103 –

make one’s robes from picked-up rags, to be satisfied

with three robes” (A.I, 30).

The vow, e.g. of No. 1, is taken in the words:

“I reject robes offered to me by householders,” or

“I take upon myself the vow of wearing only robes

made from picked-up rags.” Some of the exercises may

also be observed by the lay-adherent.

Here it may be mentioned that each newly ordained

monk, immediately after his being admitted to the

Order, is advised to be satisfied with whatever robes,

alms-food, dwelling and medicine he gets: “The life of

the monks depends on the collected alms as food… on

the root of a tree as dwelling… on robes made from

patched-up rags… on stale cow’s urine as medicine.

May you train yourself therein all your life.”

Since the moral quality of any action depends entirely

upon the accompanying intention and volition,

this is also the case with these ascetic practices, as is

expressly stated in Vis.M. Thus the mere external

performance is not the real exercise, as it is said

(Pug. 275-84): “Some one might be going for alms; etc.

out of stupidity and foolishness – or with evil intention

and filled with desires – or out of insanity and mental

derangement – or because such practice had been

praised by the Noble Ones….” These exercises are,

however properly observed “if they are taken up only

for the sake of frugality, of contentedness, of

purity, etc.” (App.)

On dhutanga practice in modern Thailand, see With

Robes and Bowl, by Bhikkhu Khantipalo (Wheel 82/83).

– 104 –

dibba-cakkhu: the ‘divine eye’, is one of the 6 higher

powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.), and one of the three kinds of

knowledge (tevijjà, q.v.).

dibba-loka: heavenly world; s. deva.

dibba-sota: the ‘divine ear’, is one of the 6 higher

powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.).

dibba-vihàra: s. vihàra.

disappearance: vigata-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

disciplinary code: s. pàtimokkha.

discursive thinking: vicàra; s. vitakka-vicàra.

disease: one of the ‘divine messengers’ (devadåta,

q.v.).

disinterestedness: (regarding the whole world):

s. sabbaloke anabhirati-sa¤¤à.

dispensation: s. sàsana.

dissociation: vippayutta-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

dissolution, contemplation of: khayànupassanà, is one

of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

diññha-dhamma-vedanãya-kamma: karma bearing

fruit in this present life; s. karma.

diññhi (lit. ‘sight’; √ dis, to see): view, belief, speculative

opinion, insight. If not qualified by sammà, ‘right’, it

– 105 –

mostly refers to wrong and evil view or opinion, and

only in a few instances to right view, understanding or

insight (e.g. diññhi-ppatta, q.v.; diññhi-visuddhi, purification

of insight; diññhi-sampanna, possessed of insight).

Wrong or evil views (diññhi or micchà-diññhi) are

declared as utterly rejectable for being a source of

wrong and evil aspirations and conduct, and liable at

times to lead man to the deepest abysses of depravity,

as it is said in A. I, 22:

“No other thing than evil views do I know,

O monks, whereby to such an extent the unwholesome

things not yet arisen arise, and the unwholesome things

already arisen are brought to growth and fullness. No

other thing than evil views do I know, whereby to such

an extent the wholesome things not yet arisen are

hindered in their arising, and the wholesome things

already arisen disappear. No other thing than evil views

do I know, whereby to such an extent human beings at

the dissolution of the body, at death, are passing to a

way of suffering, into a world of woe, into hell.”

Further in A. I, 23: “Whatever a man filled with evil

views performs or undertakes, or whatever he possesses

of will, aspiration, longing and tendencies, all these

things lead him to an undesirable, unpleasant and

disagreeable state, to woe and suffering.”

From the Abhidhamma (Dhs) it may be inferred

that evil views, whenever they arise, are associated with

greed (s. Tab. I. 22, 23, 26, 27).

Numerous speculative opinions and theories, which

at all times have influenced and still are influencing

mankind, are quoted in the sutta-texts. Amongst them,

– 106 –

however, the wrong view which everywhere, and at all

times, has most misled and deluded mankind is the

personality-belief, the ego-illusion. This personalitybelief

(sakkàya-diññhi), or ego-illusion (atta-diññhi), is of

2 kinds: eternity-belief and annihilation-belief.

Eternity-belief (sassata-diññhi) is the belief in the

existence of a persisting ego-entity, soul or personality,

existing independently of those physical and mental

processes that constitute life and continuing even after

death.

Annihilation-belief (uccheda-diññhi), on the other

hand, is the belief in the existence of an ego-entity or

personality as being more or less identical with those

physical and mental processes, and which therefore, at

the dissolution at death, will come to be annihilated. –

For the 20 kinds of personality-belief, see sakkàyadiññhi.

Now, the Buddha neither teaches a personality

which will continue after death, nor does he teach a

personality which will be annihilated at death, but he

shows us that ‘personality’, ‘ego’, ‘individual’, ‘man’, etc.,

are nothing but mere conventional designations

(vohàra-vacana) and that in the ultimate sense

(s. paramattha-sacca) there is only this self-consuming

process of physical and mental phenomena which

continually arise and again disappear immediately. –

For further details, s. anattà, khandha,

pañiccasamuppàda.

“The Perfect One is free from any theory

(diññhigata), for the Perfect One has seen what corporeality

is, and how it arises and passes away. He has

– 107 –

seen what feeling… perception… mental formations…

consciousness are, and how they arise and pass away.

Therefore I say that the Perfect One has won complete

deliverance through the extinction, fading away, disappearance,

rejection and casting out of all imaginings

and conjectures, of all inclination to the ‘vain-glory of ‘I’

and ‘mine’.” (M. 72).

The rejection of speculative views and theories is a

prominent feature in a chapter of the Sutta-Nipàta, the

Atthaka-Vagga.

The so-called ‘evil views with fixed destiny’ (niyatamicchàdiññhi)

constituting the last of the 10 unwholesome

courses of action (kammapatha, q.v.), are the

following three: (1) the fatalistic ‘view of the uncausedness’

of existence (ahetukadiññhi), (2) the ‘view of the

inefficacy of action’ (akiriyadiññhi), (3) nihilism

(natthikadiññhi).

(1) was taught by Makkhali-Gosàla, a contemporary

of the Buddha who denied every cause for the

corruptness and purity of beings, and asserted that

everything is minutely predestined by fate.

(2) was taught by Påraõa-Kassapa, another

contemporary of the Buddha who denied every

karmical effect of good and bad actions: “To him who

kills, steals, robs, etc., nothing bad will happen. For

generosity, self-restraint and truthfulness, etc. no

reward is to be expected.”

(3) was taught by Ajita-Kesakambali, a third contemporary

of the Buddha who asserted that any belief

– 108 –

in good action and its reward is a mere delusion, that

after death no further life would follow, that man at

death would become dissolved into the elements, etc.

For further details about these 3 views, s. D. 2, M. 60;

commentarial exposition in Wheel 98/99, p. 23.

Frequently mentioned are also the 10 antinomies

(antagàhikà micchà-diññhi): ‘Finite is the world’ or

‘infinite is the world’… ‘body and soul are identical’ or

‘body and soul are different’ (e.g. M. 63).

In the Brahmàjala Sutta.(D.1), 62 false views are

classified and described, comprising all conceivable

wrong views and speculations about man and world.

See The All-Embracing Net of Views (Brahmàjala Sutta),

tr. with Com. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS).

Further s. D. 15, 23, 24, 28; M. 11, 12, 25, 60, 63, 72,

76, 101, 102, 110; A. II, 16; X, 93; S. XXI, XXIV;

Pts.M. Ditthikathà,. etc.

Wrong views (diññhi) are one of the proclivities

(s. anusaya), cankers (s. àsava), clingings (s. upàdàna),

one of the three modes of perversions (s. vipallàsa).

Unwholesome consciousness (akusala citta), rooted in

greed, may be either with or without wrong views

(diññhigata-sampayutta or vippayutta); s. Dhs.; Tab I.

On right view (sammà-diññhi), s. magga and M. 9

(Trans. with Com. in ‘R. Und.’).

diññhi-nissita-sãla: ‘morality based on wrong views’;

s. nissaya.

– 109 –

diññhi-ppatta: the ‘vision attainer’, is one of the

7 Noble Persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.).

diññhi-vipallàsa: ‘perversion of views’; s. vipallàsa.

diññhi-visuddhi: ‘purification of view’ is the 3rd of the

7 stages of purification (visuddhi III, q.v.).

diññh’upàdàna: ‘clinging to views’, is one of the 4 kinds

of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

divine abode: s. vihàra.

divine ear and eye: s. abhi¤¤à.

divine messengers, the 3: deva-dåta (q.v.).

doctrine of the Buddha: s. dhamma, sàsana.

dogmatic articles, the 3: titthàyatana (q.v.).

domanassa: lit. ‘sad-mindedness’, grief, i.e. mentally

painful feeling (cetasika-vedanà), is one of the

5 feelings (vedanà, q.v.) and one of the 22 faculties

(indriya, q.v.). According to the Abhidhamma, grief is

always associated with antipathy and grudge, and

therefore karmically unwholesome (akusala, q.v.)

Cf. Tab. I. 30, 31.

domanassupavicàra: ‘indulging in grief’;

s. manopavicàra.

doors of deliverance, the 3: vimokkha-dvàra;

s. vimokkha I; visuddhi VI, 8.

dosa: ‘hatred’, anger, is one of the 3 unwholesome,

roots (måla, q.v.). – d. citta: hate consciousness;

s. Tab. I (30, 31).

– 110 –

dosa-carita: ‘angry-or hate-natured’; s. carita.

doubt, skeptical: vicikicchà (q.v.), kankhà (q.v.).

dread, moral: ottappa s. hiri-ottappa.

drinking: On the evil effects of drinking intoxicants,

s. suràmeraya, etc.

dry-visioned: s. sukkha-vipassaka.

duccarita: ‘evil conduct’, is threefold: in deeds, words

and thoughts. See kammapatha (I).

duggati: ‘woeful course’ (of existence); s. gati.

dukkha: (1) ‘pain’, painful feeling, which may be

bodily and mental (s. vedanà).

(2) ‘Suffering’, ‘ill’. As the first of the Four Noble

Truths (s. sacca) and the second of the three characteristics

of existence (s. ti-lakkhaõa), the term dukkha is

not limited to painful experience as under (1), but refers

to the unsatisfactory nature and the general insecurity

of all conditioned phenomena which, on

account of their impermanence, are all liable to suffering,

and this includes also pleasurable experience.

Hence ‘unsatisfactoriness’ or ‘liability to suffering’

would be more adequate renderings, if not for stylistic

reasons. Hence the first truth does not deny the existence

of pleasurable experience, as is sometimes wrongly

assumed. This is illustrated by the following texts:

“Seeking satisfaction in the world, monks, I had

pursued my way. That satisfaction in the world I found.

In so far as satisfaction existed in the world, I have well

– 111 –

perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for misery in the

world, monks, I had pursued my way. That misery in

the world I found. In so far as misery existed in the

world, I have well perceived it by wisdom. Seeking for

the escape from the world, monks, I had pursued my

way. That escape from the world I found. In so far as an

escape from the world existed, I have well perceived it

by wisdom” (A. 111, 101).

“If there were no satisfaction to be found in the

world, beings would not be attached to the world…. If

there were no misery to be found in the world, beings

would not be repelled by the world…. If there were no

escape from the world, beings could not escape therefrom”

(A. 111, 102).

See dukkhatà. For texts on the Truth of Suffering,

see W. of B. and ‘Path’.

See The Three Basic Facts of Existence, II. Suffering

(Wheel 191/193).

dukkhànupassanà: s. vipassanà.

dukkhatà (abstr. noun fr. dukkha): ‘the state of

suffering’, painfulness, unpleasantness, the unsatisfactoriness

of existence. “There are three kinds of

suffering: (1) suffering as pain (dukkha-dukkhatà),

(2) the suffering inherent in the formations (sankhàradukkhatà),

(3) the suffering in change (vipariõàmadukkhatà)”

(S. XLV, 165; D. 33).

(1) is the bodily or mental feeling of pain as actually

felt. (2) refers to the oppressive nature of all formations

of existence (i.e. all conditioned phenomena),

– 112 –

due to their continual arising and passing away; this

includes also experiences associated with neutral feeling.

(3) refers to bodily and mental pleasant feelings,

“because they are the cause for the arising of pain when

they change” (Vis.M. XIV, 34f).

dukkha-pañipadà: ‘painful progress’; s. pañipadà.

dvi-hetuka-pañisandhi: s. pañisandhi.

dwellings: Suitable d. for monks; s. senàsana. Satisfied

with whatever d.; s. dhutanga.

– 113 –

E

earnestness: appamàda (q.v.).

earth-element: s. dhàtu (I).

eating, knowing the measure in: bhojane

matta¤¤utà (q.v.).

effort, the 4 right e.: samma-ppadhàna; s. padhàna.

Right e. s. sacca (IV 6), magga (6). – 5 elements of e.:

padhàniyanga (q.v.).

ego-entity: attà (q.v.).

ego-belief: s. diññhi, sakkàya-diññhi, vipallàsa.

ego-idea, ego-perception: s. vipallàsa.

egolessness: anattà (q.v.).

eightfold path: s. magga.

eka-bãjã: ‘germinating only once more’, is the name for

one of the 3 kinds of Stream-winners: s. Sotàpanna.

ekàsanik’anga: the exercise of eating at one sitting, is

one of the ascetic practices; s. dhutanga.

eka-vokàra-bhava: one-group existence, is the existence

of the unconscious beings (asa¤¤a-satta, q.v.) as

they possess only the corporeality-group. Cf. catuvokàra-

bhava, pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava.

– 114 –

elasticity (of corporeality, mental factors or consciousness):

mudutà; s. khandha (Corporeality I.B.) and

Tab. II.

elders, the teaching of the: Theravàda (q.v.).

elements: dhàtu (q.v.). – Analysis of the 4 e.: dhàtuvavatthàna

(q.v.).

emotion: 8 sources of e.: saüvega-vatthu (q.v.). The

4 places rousing emotion; saüvejanãya-ññhàna (q.v.).

emptiness: su¤¤atà (q.v.). – Contemplation of e.:

su¤¤atànupassanà. – For emptiness of self, pertaining to

the 4 truths, s. sacca.

ends: ‘attaining two ends simultaneously’;

sama-sãsã (q.v.).

energy: viriya (q.v.); further s. bojjhanga, bala, pàramã.

enlightened one, the: Buddha; s. sammà-sambuddha.

enlightenment: bodhi (q.v.). – The 7 elements of e.:

bojjhanga (q.v.). – A being destined for e.:

Bodhisatta (q.v.).

enthusiasm: pãti (q.v.).

envy: issà (q.v.).

equality-conceit: s. màna.

equanimity: upekkhà (q.v.) = tatra-majjhattatà (q.v.).

– Knowledge consisting in e. with regard to all formations,

s. visuddhi (VI, 8). – Indulging in e., s. manopavicàra.

– 115 –

equilibrium of mental faculties: indriyasamatta

(q.v.).

escape: nissaraõa (s. pahàna).

eternity: cf. kappa.

eternity-belief: sassata-diññhi; s. diññhi.

exertion: see padhàna, viriya, magga (6). – Reaching

Nibbàna with or without e.; s. Anàgàmi.

existence: bhava (q.v.) – The 5 groups of e.:

khandha (q.v.) – The 4 substrata of e.: upadhi (q.v.). –

Courses of e.: gati (q.v.). – Wheel of e.: saüsàra (q.v.).

– Craving for e.: bhava-taõhà; s. taõhà; –

The 3 characteristics of e.: ti-lakkhaõa (q.v.).

expression (bodily and verbal): s. vi¤¤atti.

extinction: s. nirodha; – of craving: taõhakkhaya (q.v.).

extremes: the two e. and the middle path; s. majjhimapañipadà.

eye: 5 kinds, s. cakkhu. – Visual organ, s. àyatana.

eye-consciousness: cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa; s. dhàtu,

khandha.

eye-organ: s. àyatana.

– 116 –

F

factors, mental: s. cetasika. – F. of absorption,

s. jhàna – F. of enlightenment, s. bojjhanga.

faculties: indriya (q.v.); see also paccaya 16.

fading away: s. viràga.

faith: saddhà (q.v.).

faith-devotee and faith-liberated one:

s. ariyapuggala (B).

faithful-natured: saddhà-carita; s. carita.

fatalism: s. diññhi.

favour, 4 ways of showing sangaha-vatthu. (q.v.).

feeling: vedanà (q.v.); further s. khandha. –

Contemplation of f.: vedanànupassanà; s. satipaññhàna.

femininity: s. bhàva, indriya.

fetters: The 10 f. binding to existence; s. saüyojana.

few wishes: s. appicchatà.

fine-material sphere or world: s. avacara, loka.

Absorptions of the: råpa-jjhàna; s. jhàna.

fire-element: s. dhàtu (I).

– 117 –

fivefold sense-door, Advertence to the:

pa¤cadvàràvajjana; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

five-group existence: pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava (q.v.).

fixed destiny: s. niyata-micchà-diññhi, niyata-puggala.

fixity: s. niyama, tathatà, dhamma-ññhiti-¤àõa.

floods, the 4: ogha, are identical with the 4 cankers

(àsava, q.v.).

food, material: is one of the 4 nutriments (àhàra, q.v.).

Food-produced corporeality, s. samuññhàna. – Refusing

all further f., s. dhutanga. – Loathsomeness of f. s. àhàre

pañikkåla-sa¤¤à.

foolish babble: sampha-ppalàpa; s. karma,

kammapatha (I); cf. tiracchàna-kathà.

forbearance: khanti (q.v.).

forest-dweller, the ascetic practice for the: s. dhutanga.

formation: sankhàra (q.v.).

foundation: nissaya, one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.). Wrong f. of morality, s. nissaya. – f. of

sympathy: sangaha-vatthu (q.v.) – f.-forming absorptions:

pàdaka-jjhàna (q.v.); – f. of an Arahat’s mentality:

s. adhiññhàna.

foundations of mindfulness, the 4:

satipaññhàna (q.v.).

four-group existence: catu-vokàra-bhava (q.v.).

– 118 –

freedom of will, problem of the:

cf. pañiccasamuppàda (X).

friend, noble: kalyàõa-mitta (q.v.).

frivolous talk: cf. tiracchàna-kathà, kamma-patha

(I, 7), karma.

fruition (result of supermundane path): phala;

s. ariyapuggala (A).

fruits of monk-life: sàma¤¤a-phala (q.v.)

full comprehension: pari¤¤à (q.v.).

functional consciousness, or consciousness

functioning independently of karma: kiriya-citta (q.v.);

see vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

functions of consciousness: vi¤¤àõa-kicca (q.v.).

– 119 –

G

gantha: ‘ties’. “There are 4 ties: the bodily tie

(kàyagantha) of covetousness (abhijjhà), of ill-will

(vyàpàda), of clinging to rule and ritual (sãlabbataparàmàsa),

of dogmatical fanaticism (idamsaccàbhinivesa)”

(D. 33). – “These things are ties, since

they tie this mental and material body”

(Vis.M. XXII, 54).

garuka-kamma: weighty karma; s. karma.

gati (lit. ‘going’): ‘course of existence’, destiny, destination.

“There are 5 courses of existence: hell, animal

kingdom, ghost realm, human world, heavenly world”

(D. 33; A. XI, 68). Of these, the first 3 count as woeful

courses (duggati, s. apàya), the latter 2 as happy

courses (sugati).

gems, the 3: ti-ratana (q.v.).

generation, the 4 modes of: yoni (q.v.).

germinating once more: eka-bãjã, is the name of one

of the 3 kinds of Sotàpanna (q.v.).

ghosts: cf. peta, yakkha; s. loka.

giving: dàna (q.v.).

gladness: somanassa (q.v.). – Indulging in g.,

s. manopavicàra.

– 120 –

gnosis: s. indriya (21).

gotrabhå: lit. ‘who has entered the lineage (of the

Noble Ones)’, i.e. the Matured One.

I. ‘Maturity-Moment’ (gotrabhå-citta) is the last of

the 4 impulsive moments (javana, q.v.; cf. vi¤¤àõakicca)

immediately preceding the entering into an

absorption (jhàna, q.v.) or into one of the supermundane

paths (s. ariya-puggala, A.). Cf. visuddhi VII.

II. The ‘Matured One’. “He who is endowed with

those things, immediately upon which follows the

entrance into the noble path (ariya-magga), this person

is called a ‘Matured One’.” (Pug. 10). In the Com. to

this passage it is said: “He who through perceiving

Nibbàna, leaves behind the whole multitude of worldlings

(puthujjana, q.v.), the family of worldlings, the

circle of worldlings, the designation of a worldling and

enters into the multitude of the Noble Ones, the family

of the Noble Ones, the circle of the Noble Ones, and

obtains the designation of a Noble One, such a being is

called a Matured One.” By this state of consciousness is

meant the lightning-like transitional stage between the

state of a worldling and that of a Sotàpanna; s. ariyapuggala.

– Gotrabhå is mentioned in this sense, i.e. as

9th ariyapuggala (q.v.), in A. IX, 10; X, 16.

gotrabhå-¤àõa: ‘Maturity-knowledge’; s. prec. and

visuddhi (VII)

gradual instruction: ànupubbãkathà (q.v.).

grasping: cf. paràmàsa, upàdàna.

– 121 –

great man, the 8 thoughts of a: mahàpurisavitakka

(q.v.).

greed: lobha (q.v.).

greedy consciousness: s. Tab, I, III. (22-29).

greedy-natured: ràga-carita; s. carita.

grief: domanassa (q.v.) – Indulging in g.

s. manopavicàra.

groups: of existence, s. khandha; corporeal groups,

s. råpa-kalàpa; corporeality-group, s. råpa-kàya; mindgroup,

s. nàma-kàya.

growth, bodily: råpassa upacaya: s. khandha I.

grudge: s. pañigha.

gustatory organ: s. àyatana.

– 122 –

H

habitual karma: bahula-kamma: s. karma.

hadaya-vatthu: ‘heart as physical base’ of mental life.

The heart, according to the commentaries as well as to

the general Buddhist tradition, forms the physical base

(vatthu) of consciousness In the canonical texts, however,

even in the Abhidhamma Piñaka, no such base is

ever localized, a fact which seems to have first been

discovered by Shwe Zan Aung (Compendium of

Philosophy, pp. 277ff.). In the Paññh. we find repeatedly

only the passage: “That material thing based on which

mind-element and mind-consciousness element

function” (yaü råpaü nissàya manodhàtu ca manovi¤¤

àõa-dhàtu ca vattanti, taü råpaü).

hàna-bhàgiya-sãla, h.-b.–samàdhi, h.-b.–pa¤¤à:

morality, concentration or wisdom connected with

decline. The other three stages are: ñhiti-bhàgiyasãla,

etc. morality, etc. connected with a standstill;

visesa-bhàgiya sãla, etc.: morality, etc. connected with

progress; nibbedha-bhàgiya sãla, etc.: morality, etc.

connected with penetration. Cf. A. IV, 179; VI. X, 71.

“ ‘Decline’ (hàna) is to be understood with regard to

the arising of opposing qualities, ‘standstill’ ( ñhiti) with

regard to the standstill of the corresponding

attentiveness, ‘progress’ (visesa) with regard to higher

excellency, ‘penetration’ (nibbedha) with regard to the

arising of perception and reflection connected with the

– 123 –

turning away (from existence)” (Vis.M. III).

Cf. vodàna (2).

happiness, feeling of h.: s. sukha. – The idea of h.

(of the world), s. vipallàsa.

happy courses of existence: s. gati.

harmlessness: s. avihiüsà.

hasituppàda-citta: lit. ‘consciousness producing mirth’

(smile), is found in the Abhidhammattha Sangaha as a

name for the joyful mind-consciousness element

(manovi¤¤àõa-dhàtu, Tab. I. 72) arising as functional

consciousness independent of karma (kiriya-citta), only

in the Arahat. – (App.).

hate and hatelessness: (dosa, adosa) are two of the

6 karmical roots (måla, q.v.) or root-conditions (hetu;

paccaya 1).

hate-rooted consciousness: s. Tab. I. (30, 31).

hate-natured: dosa-carita; s. carita.

health-infatuation: s. mada.

hearer (disciple): sàvaka (q.v.).

heat-element: tejo-dhàtu; s. dhàtu.

hell: niraya (q.v.).

hetu: ‘cause’, condition, reason; (Abhidhamma) rootcondition.

In sutta usage it is almost synonymous with

paccaya, ‘condition’, and often occurs together with it

– 124 –

(‘What is the cause, what is the condition’, ko hetu ko

paccayo).

In Abhidhamma, it denotes the wholesome and

unwholesome roots (måla, q.v.). In that sense, as ‘rootcondition’

(hetu-paccaya; s. paccaya), it is the first of the

24 conditions given in the introduction to the Paññhàna

(s. Guide, p. 117). The Dhs (1052-1082) and Paññhàna

(Duka-paññh; Guide, p. 144) have sections on roots

(hetu). – The term is also used (a) for the classification

of consciousness, as sa-hetuka and a-hetuka, with and

without concomitant root-conditions; (b) for a division

of rebirth consciousness into ahetuka, dvihetuka and

tihetuka, without, with 2, or with 3 root-conditions

(s. pañisandhi).

Ahetuka-diññhi, the false view of the uncausedness

of existence; s. diññhi.

higher wisdom: clear insight based on h. w.:

s. vipassanà. Training in H. W., s. sikkhà.

highest knowledge: s. a¤¤à.

hindrances, the 5: nãvaraõa (q.v.).

hiri-ottappa: ‘moral shame and moral dread’, are

associated with all karmically wholesome consciousness

(s. Tab. II).

“To be ashamed of what one ought to be ashamed

of, to be ashamed of performing evil and unwholesome

things: this is called moral shame. To be in dread of

what one ought to be in dread of, to be in dread of

– 125 –

performing evil and unwholesome things: this is called

moral dread” (Pug, 79, 80).

“Two lucid things, O monks, protect the world:

moral shame and moral dread. If these two things were

not to protect the world, then one would respect

neither one’s mother, nor one’s mother’s sister, nor

one’s brother’s wife, nor one’s teacher’s wife….”

(A. II, 7). Cf. ahirika. See Atthasàlini Tr. I. pp. 164ff.

homelessness, going into pabbajjà (q.v.). Cf. Progress

of the disciple.

human world: cf. loka, gati.

– 126 –

I

iddhi: ‘power’, ‘magical power’. The magical powers

constitute one of the 6 kinds of higher spiritual powers

(abhi¤¤à, q.v.). One distinguishes many kinds of magical

powers: the power of determination (adhiññhàn’

iddhi), i.e. the power of becoming oneself manifold;

the power of transformation (vikubbana iddhi), i.e. the

power of adopting another form; the power of spiritual

creation (manomaya iddhi), i.e. the power of letting

issue from this body another mentally produced body;

the power of penetrating knowledge (¤àõa-vipphara

iddhi), i.e. the power of inherent insight to remain unhurt

in danger; the power of penetrating concentration

(samàdhivippharà iddhi) producing the same result.

The magical powers are treated in detail in Vis.M. XII;

Pts.M., Vibh. – (App.). They are not a necessary condition

for final deliverance.

‘Noble power’ (ariyà-iddhi) is the power of controlling

one’s ideas in such a way that one may consider

something not repulsive as repulsive and something

repulsive as not repulsive, and remain all the time imperturbable

and full of equanimity. This training of

mind is frequently mentioned in the Suttas (e.g. M. 152,

A.V. 144), but only once the name of ariyà-iddhi is

applied to it (D. 28). See further Pts.M., Iddhi-kathà,

Vis.M. XII.

iddhi-pàda: ‘roads to power’ (or success) are the

4 following qualities, “for as guides, they indicate the

– 127 –

road to power connected therewith; and because they

form, by way of preparation, the roads to the power

constituting the fruition of the path” (Vis.M. XII), namely:

“concentration of intention (chanda-samàdhi)

accompanied by effort of will (padhàna-sankhàrasamannàgata),

concentration of energy (viriyasamàdhi)…

concentration of consciousness (cittasamàdhi)…

and concentration of investigation

(vimaüsa-samàdhi) accompanied by effort of will.” As

such, they are supermundane (lokuttara, i.e. connected

with the path or the fruition of the path;

s. ariyapuggala). But they are mundane (lokiya, q.v.) as

predominant factors (adhipati; s. paccaya 3), for it is

said: “Because the monk, through making intention a

predominant factor, reaches concentration, it is called

the concentration of intention (chanda-samàdhi), etc.”

(Vis.M. XII).

“These 4 roads of power lead to the attaining and

acquiring of magical power, to the power of magical

transformation, to the generation of magical power,

and to mastery and skill therein” (Pts.M. II. 205, PTS).

For a detailed explanation, s. Vis.M. XII.

“Once the monk has thus developed and often

practised the 4 roads to power, he enjoys various magical

powers,… hears with the divine ear heavenly and

human sounds,… perceives with his mind the mind of

other beings… remembers many a former existence…

perceives with the divine eye beings passing away and

reappearing,… attains, after the extinction of cankers,

deliverance of mind and deliverance through wisdom,

– 128 –

free from. cankers…. (S. LI, 2). For a detailed

explanation of these 6 higher powers, s. abhi¤¤à.

“Whosoever, O monks, has missed the 4 roads to

power, he has missed the right path leading to the

extinction of suffering; but whosoever, O monks, has

reached the 4 roads to power, he has reached the right

path leading to the extinction of suffering” (S. LI, 2).

See the chapter on Iddhipàda in The Requisites of

Enlightenment by Ledi Sayadaw (Wheel 169/172).

ignorance: avijjà (q.v.); further

s. pañiccasamuppàda (1).

ill-humour, heavenly beings who come to grief

through: mano-padosika-deva (q.v.).

ill-will: vyàpàda, is a synonym of dosa (s. måla) and

pañigha and is one of the 10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.),

5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.) and 10 unwholesome

courses of action (s. kammapatha, I).

image, mental: s. nimitta, samàdhi, kasiõa.

immaterial sphere: aråpàvacara: cf. avacara, jhàna

(5-8); Tab. I.

immaterial world: aråpa-loka; s. loka.

immediacy: an alternative rendering for contiguitycondition,

samanatara-paccaya, which is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.)

immediate, the: ànantariya (q.v.).

immortality: s. amata.

– 129 –

imperfections: s. upakkilesa.

impermanence: anicca (q.v.). – Contemplation of i.,

cf. vipassanà (1).

impersonality of existence: s. anattà. – Contemplation

of: s. vipassanà (3).

imperturbable karma-formations:

àne¤jàbhisankhàra; s. sankhàra.

impression, sensorial or mental: phassa (q.v.).

impulsion: javana (q.v.).

impurities: s. upakkilesa.

impurity of the body, contemplation of the: s. asubha,

sãvathikà.

inclinations: s. anusaya.

independently enlightened: Pacceka-Buddha (q.v.).

indifferent feeling cf. vedanà, upekkhà.

individual: puggala (q.v.).

indriya: ‘faculties’, is a name for 22, partly physical,

partly mental, phenomena often treated in the Suttas as

well as in the Abhidhamma. They are:

– 130 –

1. eye: cakkhu

2. ear: sota

3. nose: ghàna

4. tongue: j vhài 6 Bases (àyatana, q.v.)

5. body: kàya

6. mind: mano

7. femininity: itthi

8. masculinity: purisa Sex (bhava, q.v.)

9. vitality: jãvita

10. bodily pleasant feeling: sukha

11. bodily pain: dukkha

12. gladness: somanassa 5 Feelings

13. sadness: domanassa (vedanà, q. v.)

14. indifference: upekkhà

15. faith: saddhà

16. energy: viriya

17. mindfulness: sati 5 Spiritual Faculties

18. concentration: samàdhi (s. bala)

19. wisdom: pa¤¤à

20. the assurance: ‘I shall know

what I did not yet know!’:

a¤¤àta¤-¤assàmãt’ indriya

21. the faculty of highest 3 Supermundane

knowledge: a¤¤indriya Faculties

22. the faculty of him who

knows: a¤¤àtàvindriya.

(1-5, 7-8) are physical; (9) is either physical or

mental. All the rest are mental. – (14) (s. upekkhà) is

here merely indifferent feeling (= adukkha-m-asukhà

– 131 –

vedanà, i.e. ‘neither pleasant nor unpleasant feeling’)

and not identical with that highly ethical state of equanimity

(= tatramajjhattatà, i.e. ‘keeping everywhere the

middle’, the equipoise of mind), also called upekkhà

which belongs to the group of mental formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha; s. Tab II). – (20) arises at the

moment of entering the Sotàpatti-Path (sotàpattimagga),

(21) on reaching the Sotàpatti-Fruition

(sotàpatti-phala), (22) at attaining the Arahat-Fruition

(arahatta-phala). For the three last, s. ariya-puggala.

The faculties, excepting (7) and (8), form one of

the 24 conditions (paccaya 16, q.v.).

In Vibh. V all these faculties are treated in the

above order, whereas S. XLVIII enumerates and explains

them by way of the above indicated groups,

leaving only 20-22 unexplained. See Vis. XVI;

Path 138ff. – For the 5 spiritual faculties (15-19),

s. The Way of Wisdom (Wheel 65/66).

indriya-paccaya: s. paccaya 16.

indriya-samatta: ‘equilibrium, balance, or harmony of

faculties’, relates to the 5 spiritual faculties: faith,

energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom

(s. indriya 15-19). Of these there are two pairs of

faculties, in each of which both faculties should well

counter-balance each other, namely: faith and wisdom

(saddhà, pa¤¤à, q.v.) on the one hand and energy and

concentration (viriya, samàdhi, q.v.) on the other. For

excessive faith with deficient wisdom leads to blind

belief, whilst excessive wisdom with deficient faith

leads to cunning. In the same way, great energy with

weak concentration leads to restlessness, whilst strong

– 132 –

concentration with deficient energy leads to indolence.

Though for both faculties in each of the 2 pairs a

balanced degree of intensity is desirable, mindfulness

should be allowed to develop to the highest degree of

strength. Cf. Vis.M. III – (App.).

indriya-saüvara-sãla: ‘morality consisting of purity of

restraint of the senses’; s. sãla.

indriyesu gutta-dvàratà: ‘guarding the sense-doors’ is

identical with sense-control (indriya-saüvara; s. sãla).

in-and-out-breathing, watching over: ànàpànasati

(q.v.).

inducement: an alternative rendering for decisivesupport

condition, upanissaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya; q.v.).

indulging (in joy, sadness etc.): s. manopavicàra.

ineffective karma: s. karma.

infatuation: cf. mada, moha (s. måla), avijjà.

inference of meaning: an ‘expression the meaning of

which is to be inferred’: neyyattha-dhamma (q.v.). –

Antonym: ‘expression with an established meaning’:

nãtattha-dhamma (s. neyyattha-dhamma).

inferiority-conceit: s. màna.

influxes (cankers), the 4: àsava (q.v.).

inoperative consciousness, karmically; s. kiriyacitta.

– 133 –

inseparable mental factors, the 7 i. m. f. in all

consciousness: s. cetanà, phassa, nàma.

insight: cf. pa¤¤à, vipassanà, ¤àõa.

intelligent-natured: s. carita.

intention: chanda (q.v.).

interest: pãti (q.v.); cf. Tab. II.

intimation: cf. vi¤¤atti.

intoxicants: s. àsava.

intoxicating drinks, the evil effect of taking:

s. suràmeraya.

investigating function (of consciousness): santãraõa;

s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

investigation, full understanding through:

tãranapari¤¤à, s. pari¤¤à. – ‘Investigation’ (vãmaüsà) is

one of the 4 roads to power (iddhipàda, q.v.) and one

of the 4 predominants (adhipati; s. paccaya 3). – i. of

truth: dhamma-vicaya, is one of the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.).

iriyà-patha (lit. ‘ways of movement’): ‘bodily postures’,

i.e. going, standing, sitting, lying. In the Satipaññhànasutta

(s. satipaññhàna), they form the subject of a contemplation

and an exercise in mindfulness.

“While going, standing, sitting or lying down, the

monk knows ‘I go’, ‘I stand’, ‘I sit’, ‘I lie down’; he understands

any position of the body.” – “The disciple understands

that there is no living being, no real ego, that

goes, stands, etc., but that it is by a mere figure of

– 134 –

speech that one says: ‘I go’, ‘I stand’, and so forth.”

(Com.).

issà: ‘envy’, is a karmically unwholesome (akusala)

mental factor, which is occasionally associated with

hate-rooted consciousness (s. Tab. I. 30, 31,).

Explained in Pug. 55.

itthindriya: ‘femininity’; s. bhàva.

– 135 –

J

janaka-kamma: ‘regenerative karma’; s. karma.

jarà: ‘old age, decay’, is one of the 3 divine messengers

(s. deva-dåta, q.v.). For its conditioning by birth,

s. pañiccasamuppàda (11).

jàti: ‘birth’, comprises the entire embryonic process

beginning with conception and ending with parturition.

“The birth of beings belonging to this or that order

of beings, their being born, their conception (okkanti)

and springing into existence, the manifestation of the

groups (corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations,

consciousness; s. khandha), the acquiring of

their sensitive organs: this is called birth” (D. 22). For

its conditioning by the prenatal karma-process (kammabhava;

s. bhava), s. pañiccasamuppàda (9, 10),

pañisandhi.

javana (fr. javati, to impel): ‘impulsion’, is the phase of

full cognition in the cognitive series, or perceptual process

(citta-vãthi; s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca) occurring at its climax,

if the respective object is large or distinct. It is at

this phase that karma is produced, i.e. wholesome or

unwholesome volition concerning the perception that

was the object of the previous stages of the respective

process of consciousness. There are normally 7 impulsive

moments. In mundane consciousness (lokiya, q.v.),

any of the 17 karmically wholesome classes of con-

136 –

sciousness (Tab. I, 1-17) or of the 12 unwholesome

ones (Tab. I, 22-23) may arise at the phase of impulsion.

For the Arahat, however, impulsion has no longer

a karmic, i.e. rebirth-producing character, but is a karmically

independent function (kiriya, q.v.; Tab. I, 72-89).

There are further 8 supermundane classes of impulsion

(Tab. I, 18-21, 66-69).

The 4 impulsive moments immediately before entering

an absorption (jhàna, q.v.) or one of the supermundane

paths (magga; s. ariyapuggala) are: the preparatory

(parikamma), approach (upacàra), adaptation

(anuloma), and maturity-moment (gotrabhå, q.v.). In

connection with entering the earth-kasina absorption

(s. kasiõa), they are explained as follows, in Vis.M. IV:

“After the breaking off of the subconscious stream of

being (bhavanga-sota, q.v.), there arises the ‘advertence

at the mind-door’ (manodvàràvajjana, s. vi¤¤àõakicca),

taking as object the earth-kasina (whilst thinking),

‘Earth! Earth!’ Thereupon, 4 or 5 impulsive moments

flash forth, amongst which the last one (maturitymoment)

belongs to the fine-material sphere (råpàvacara),

whereas the rest belong to the sense-sphere

(kàmàvacara; s. avacara), though the last one is more

powerful in thought conception, discursive thinking,

interest (rapture), joy and concentration (cf. jhàna)

than the states of consciousness belonging to the sensesphere.

They are called ‘preparatory’ (parikammasamàdhi),

as they are preparing for the attainmentconcentration

(appanà-samàdhi); ‘approaching’

(upacàra-samàdhi), as they are close to the attainmentconcentration

and are moving in its neighbourhood;

‘adaptive’ (anuloma), as they adapt themselves to the

– 137 –

preceding preparatory states and to the succeeding

attainment concentration. The last one of the four is

called ‘matured’ (gotrabhå). In a similar way, the

impulsive moments before reaching the divine ear are

described in Vis.M. XIII, 1. – Cf. Karma – (App.).

jewels. The 3: ti-ratana (q.v.).

jhàna: ‘absorption’ (meditation) refers chiefly to the

four meditative absorptions of the fine-material sphere

(råpa-jjhàna or råpàvacara-jjhàna; s. avacara). They are

achieved through the attainment of full (or attainment-,

or ecstatic) concentration (appanà, s. samàdhi), during

which there is a complete, though temporary, suspension

of fivefold sense-activity and of the 5 hindrances

(s. nãvaraõa). The state of consciousness, however, is

one of full alertness and lucidity. This high degree of

concentration is generally developed by the practice of

one of the 40 subjects of tranquillity meditation

(samatha-kammaññhàna; s. bhàvanà). Often also the

4 immaterial spheres (aråpàyatana) are called absorptions

of the immaterial sphere (aråpa-jjhàna or

aråpàvacara-jjhàna). The stereotype text, often met

with in the Suttas, runs as follows:

(1) “Detached from sensual objects, O monks,

detached from unwholesome consciousness, attached

with thought-conception (vitakka) and discursive

thinking (vicàra), born of detachment (vivekaja) and

filled with rapture (pãti) and joy (sukha) he enters the

first absorption.

(2) “After the subsiding of thought-conception and

discursive thinking, and by gaining inner tranquillity

and oneness of mind, he enters into a state free from

– 138 –

thought-conception and discursive thinking, the second

absorption, which is born of concentration (samàdhi),

and filled with rapture (pãti) and joy (sukha).

(3) “After the fading away of rapture he dwells in

equanimity, mindful, clearly conscious; and he experiences

in his person that feeling of which the Noble

Ones say, ‘Happy lives the man of equanimity and

attentive mind’; thus he enters the 3rd absorption.

(4) “After having given up pleasure and pain, and

through the disappearance of previous joy and grief, he

enters into a state beyond pleasure and pain, into the

4th absorption, which is purified by equanimity

(upekkhà) and mindfulness.

(5) “Through the total overcoming of the perceptions

of matter, however, and through the vanishing of

sense-reactions and the non-attention to the perceptions

of variety, with the idea, ‘Boundless is space’, he

reaches the sphere of boundless space (àkàsàna¤càyatana)

and abides therein.

[“By ‘perceptions of matter’ (råpa-sa¤¤à) are meant

the absorptions of the fine-material sphere, as well as

those objects themselves… “ (Vis.M. X, 1).

“By ‘perceptions of sense-reactions’ (pañigha-sa¤¤à)

are meant those perceptions that have arisen due to the

impact of sense-organs (eye, etc.) and the sense-objects

(visible objects, etc.). They are a name for the perception

of visible objects, as it is said (Jhàna-Vibh.): ‘What

are here the perceptions of sense-reactions? They are

the perceptions of visible objects, sounds, etc.’ – Surely,

they do no longer exist even for one who has entered

the 1st absorption, etc., for at such a time the five-sense

– 139 –

consciousness is no longer functioning. Nevertheless,

this is to be understood as having been said in praise of

this immaterial absorption, in order to incite the striving

for it” (Vis.M. X, 16).

“Perceptions of variety (¤àõatta-sa¤¤à) are the

perceptions that arise in various fields, or the various

perceptions” (ib.). Hereby, according to Vis.M. X, 20,

are meant the multiform perceptions outside the

absorptions.]

(6) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

boundless space, and with the idea ‘Boundless is consciousness’,

he reaches the sphere of boundless consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana) and abides therein.

(7) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

boundless consciousness, and with the idea ‘Nothing is

there’, he reaches the sphere of nothingness

(àki¤ca¤¤àyatana) and abides therein.

(8) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

nothingness he reaches the sphere of neither-perception-

nor-non-perception (nevasa¤¤à-n’asa¤¤àyatana)

and abides therein.”

“Thus the 1st absorption is free from 5 things

(i.e. the hindrances, nãvaraõa, q.v.), and 5 things are

present (i.e. the factors of absorption; jhànanga).

Whenever the monk enters the 1st absorption, there

have vanished sensuous desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor,

restlessness and scruples, doubts; and there are

present: thought-conception (vitakka), discursive thinking

(vicàra) rapture (pãti), joy (sukha), and concentration

(samàdhi). In the 2nd absorption there are present:

rapture, joy and concentration; in the 3rd: joy and con-

140 –

centration; in the 4th: equanimity (upekkhà) and

concentration” (Vis.M. IV).

The 4 absorptions of the immaterial sphere

(s. above 5-8) still belong, properly speaking, to the

4th absorption as they possess the same two constituents.

The 4th fine-material absorption is also the base

or starting point (pàdaka-jhàna, q.v.) for the attaining of

the higher spiritual powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.).

In the Abhidhamma, generally a fivefold instead of

a fourfold division of the fine-material absorptions is

used: the 2nd absorption has still the constituent

‘discursive thinking’ (but without thought-conception),

while the 3rd, 4th and 5th correspond to the 2nd, 3rd

and 4th, respectively, of the fourfold division (s. Tab. I,

9-13). This fivefold division is based on sutta texts like

A. VIII, 63.

For the 8 absorptions as objects for the development

of insight (vipassanà), see samatha-vipassanà. –

Full details in Vis.M. IV-X.

Jhàna in its widest sense (e.g. as one of the 24 conditions;

s. paccaya 17), denotes any, even momentary

or weak absorption of mind, when directed on a single

object.

jhànanga: ‘constituents (or factors) of absorption’;

s. prec.

jhàna-paccaya, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

jãva: life, vital principle, individual soul. ‘Soul (life)

and body are identical’ and ‘Soul and body are different’,

these two frequently quoted wrong views fall

– 141 –

under the 2 kinds of personality-belief (sakkàya-diññhi;

s. diññhi), i.e. the first one under the annihilation-belief

(uccheda-diññhi) and the second under the eternitybelief

(sassata-diññhi).

“Verily, if one holds the view that the soul (life) is

identical with the body, in that case a holy life is not

possible; or if one holds the view that the soul (life) is

something quite different, also in that case a holy life is

impossible. Both these extremes the Perfect One has

avoided and shown the Middle Doctrine, which says:

‘On ignorance depend the karma-formations, on the

karma-formations depends consciousness’, etc.”

(S. XII. 35).

jãvita and jãvitindriya: ‘Life, vitality’, may be either

physical (råpa-jãvitindriya) or mental (nàmajãvitindriya).

The latter is one of the mental factors

inseparably associated with all consciousness; cf. nàma,

cetanà, phassa.

jãvita-navaka-kalàpa: ninefold vital group; s. råpakalàpa.

joy: somanassa (q.v.). – Altruistic j. = mudità

(s. brahma-vihàra).

– 142 –

K

kabalinkàràhàra: lit. ‘food formed into balls’, i.e. food

formed into mouthfuls for eating (according to Indian

custom); it denotes ‘material food’ and belongs, together

with the three mental nutriments, to the group of

four nutriments (s. àhàra).

kalàpa, ‘group’, ‘unit’: 1. ‘corporeal unit’ (s. råpakalàpa);

2. It has the meaning of ‘group of existence’

(khandha) in kalàpasammasana (s. sammasana),

i.e. ‘comprehension by groups’, which is the application

of ‘methodical (or inductive) insight’ (naya-vipassanà)

to the comprehension of the 5 aggregates (khandha) as

impermanent, painful and not-self. It is a process of

methodical summarization, or generalization, from

one’s own meditative experience that is applied to each

of the 5 aggregates, viewed as past, present, future, as

internal and external, etc. In Vis.M. XX, where the ‘comprehension

by groups’ is treated in detail, it is said to

constitute ‘the beginning of insight’ as it leads to the

‘knowledge of rise and fall’, being the first of the

8 insight-knowledges (s. visuddhi VI). It is necessary for

accomplishing the 5th purification (s. visuddhi V;

Vis.M. XX, 2, 6ff.).

kalpa: (Skr) = kappa (q.v.).

kalyàõa-mitta: ‘noble (or good) friend’, is called a

senior monk who is the mentor and friend of his pupil,

“wishing for his welfare and concerned with his

– 143 –

progress”, guiding his meditation; in particular, the

meditation teacher (kammaññhànàcariya) is so called.

For details see Vis.M. III, 28, 57ff. The Buddha said that

“noble friendship is the entire holy life” (S. III, 18;

XLV, 2), and he himself is the good friend par excellence:

“Ananda, it is owing to my being a good friend to

them that living beings subject to birth are freed from

birth” (S. III, 18).

kàma may denote: 1. subjective sensuality, ‘sensedesire’;

2. objective sensuality, the five sense-objects.

1. Subjective sensuality, or sense-desire, is directed

to all five sense-objects, and is synonymous with kàmacchanda,

‘sensuous desire’, one of the 5 hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.); kàma-ràga, sensuous lust’, one of the

ten fetters (saüyojana, q.v.); kàma-taõhà, ‘sensuous

craving’, one of the 3 cravings (taõhà, q.v.); kàmavitakka,

‘sensuous thought’, one of the 3 wrong

thoughts (micchà-sankappa; s. vitakka). – Sense-desire

is also one of the cankers (àsava, q.v.) and clingings

(upàdàna, q.v.).

2. Objective sensuality is, in the canonical texts,

mostly called kàma-guõa, ‘cords (or strands) of sensuality’.

“There are 5 cords of sensuality: the visible objects,

cognizable by eye-consciousness, that are desirable,

cherished, pleasant, lovely, sensuous and alluring; the

sounds… smells… tastes… bodily impressions cognizable

by body-consciousness, that are desirable….”

(D. 33; M. 13, 26, 59, 66).

– 144 –

These two kinds of kàma are called 1. kilesa-kàma,

i.e. kàma as a mental defilement, 2. vatthu-kàma,

i.e. kàma as the object-base of sensuality; first in

MNid. I, p. 1, and frequently in the commentaries.

Sense-desire is finally eliminated at the stage of the

Non-Returner (Anàgàmi; s. ariya-puggala, saüyojana).

The peril and misery of sense-desire is often described

in the texts, e.g. in stirring similes at M. 22, 54, and

in the ‘gradual instruction’ (s. ànupubbã-kathà). See

further M. 13, 45, 75; Sn. v. 766ff.; Dhp. 186, 215.

The texts often stress the fact that what fetters man

to the world of the senses are not the sense-organs nor

the sense-objects but lustful desire (chandaràga). On

this see A. VI, 63; S. XXXV, 122, 191. – (App.).

kàma-bhava: ‘sensuous existence’; s. bhava.

kàma-cchanda: ‘sensuous desire’, s. nãvaraõa, chanda.

kàma-guna: s. kàma.

kàma-loka: ‘sensuous world’, s. loka.

kàma-ràga: ‘sensuous lust’, is one of the 10 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.).

kàmàsava: s. àsava.

kàma-sukh’allikànuyoga: ‘being addicted to sensual

pleasures’, is one of the 2 extremes to be avoided by

the monk; s. majjhima-pañipadà.

kàma-taõhà: ‘sensuous craving’; s. taõhà.

– 145 –

kàmàvacara: ‘sensuous sphere’; s. avacara.

kàmesu-micchàcàra: lit. ‘wrong or evil conduct with

regard to sensual things’; ‘unlawful sexual intercourse’

refers to adultery, and to intercourse with minors or

other persons under guardianship. The abstaining from

this unlawful act is one of the 5 moral rules

(s. sikkhàpada) binding upon all Buddhists. Through

any other sexual act one does not become guilty of the

above transgression, which is considered a great crime.

The monk, however, has to observe perfect chastity.

In many Suttas (e.g. A.X., 176) we find the following

explanation: “He avoids unlawful sexual intercourse,

abstains from it. He has no intercourse with girls

who are still under the protection of father or mother,

brother, sister or relatives, nor with married women,

nor female convicts, nor, lastly, with betrothed girls.”

kamma: (wholesome or unwholesome) action;

s. karma.

kamma-bhava: s. bhava, pañiccasamuppàda.

kammaja-råpa: ‘karma-produced corporeality’;

s. samuññhàna.

kamma¤¤atà: ‘adaptability’, i.e. of corporeality

(råpassa; s. khandha, Summary I), mental factors

(kàya), and of consciousness (citta); cf. Tab. II.

kammanta, sammà-: ‘right action’; s. magga.

kamma-paccaya: ‘karma as condition’; s. paccaya (13).

– 146 –

kamma-patha: ‘course of action’, is a name for the

group of 10 kinds of either unwholesome or wholesome

actions, viz.

I. The tenfold unwholesome courses of action

(akusala-kamma-patha):

3 bodily actions: killing, stealing, unlawful sexual

intercourse;

4 verbal actions: lying, slandering, rude speech,

foolish babble;

3 mental actions: covetousness, ill-will, evil views.

Unwholesome mental courses of action comprise

only extreme forms of defiled thought: the greedy wish

to appropriate others’ property, the hateful thought of

harming others, and pernicious views. Milder forms of

mental defilement are also unwholesome, but do not

constitute ‘courses of action’.

II. The tenfold wholesome course of action (kusalakamma-

patha):

3 bodily actions: avoidance of killing, stealing,

unlawful sexual intercourse;

4 verbal actions: avoidance of lying, slandering,

rude speech, foolish babble; i.e. true, conciliatory, mild,

and wise speech;

3 mental actions: unselfishness, good-will, right

views.

Both lists occur repeatedly, e.g. in A. X, 28, 176;

M. 9; they are explained in detail in M. 114, and in

Com. to M. 9 (R. Und., p. 14), Atthasàlini Tr. I, 126ff.

kamma-samuññhàna-råpa: ‘corporeality produced

through karma’; s. samuññhàna.

– 147 –

kammaññhàna: lit. ‘working-ground’ (i.e. for

meditation), is the term in the Com. for ‘subjects of

meditation’; s. bhàvanà.

kamma-vañña: ‘karma-round’; s. vañña.

kammàyåhana: s. àyåhana.

kàmupàdàna: ‘sensuous clinging’, is one of the 4 kinds

of clinging (upàdàna, q.v.).

kankhà: ‘doubt’, may be either an intellectual, critical

doubt or an ethically and psychologically detrimental

doubt. The latter may either be a persistent negative

skepticism or wavering indecision. Only the detrimental

doubt (identical with vicikicchà, q.v.) is to be rejected as

karmically unwholesome, as it paralyses thinking and

hinders the inner development of man. Reasoned, critical

doubt in dubious matters is thereby not discouraged.

The 16 doubts enumerated in the Suttas (e.g. M. 2)

are the following: “Have I been in the past? Or, have I

not been in the past? What have I been in the past?

How have I been in the past? From what state into

what state did I change in the past? – Shall I be in the

future? Or, shall I not be in the future? What shall I be

in the future? How shall I be in the future? From what

state into what state shall I change in the future? – Am

I? Or, am I not? What am I? How am I? Whence has

this being come? Whither will it go?”

kankhà-vitaraõa-visuddhi: ‘purification by

overcoming doubt’, is the 4th of the 7 stages of

purification (visuddhi, q.v.).

– 148 –

kappa (Sanskrit kalpa): ‘world-period’, an inconceivably

long space of time, an aeon. This again is subdivided

into 4 sections: world-dissolution (samvaññakappa)

dissolving world), continuation of the chaos

(samvañña-ññhàyã), world-formation (vivañña-kappa),

continuation of the formed world (vivañña-ññhàyã).

“How long a world-dissolution will continue, how

long the chaos, how long the formation, how long the

continuation of the formed world, of these things;

O monks, one hardly can say that it will be so many

years, or so many centuries, or so many millennia, or so

many hundred thousands of years” (A. IV, 156).

A detailed description of the 4 world-periods is given in

that stirring discourse on the all-embracing impermanence

in A. VII, 62.

The beautiful simile in S. XV, 5 may be mentioned

here: “Suppose, O monks, there was a huge rock of one

solid mass, one mile long, one mile wide, one mile

high, without split or flaw. And at the end of every hundred

years a man should come and rub against it once

with a silken cloth. Then that huge rock would wear off

and disappear quicker than a world-period. But of such

world-periods, O monks, many have passed away,

many hundreds, many thousands, many hundred thousands.

And how is this possible? Inconceivable,

O monks, is this saüsàra (q.v.), not to be discovered is

any first beginning of beings, who obstructed by ignorance

and ensnared by craving, are hurrying and hastening

through this round of rebirths.”

– 149 –

Compare here Grimm’s German fairy-tale of the

little shepherdboy: ‘In Farther Pommerania there is the

diamond-mountain, one hour high, one hour wide, one

hour deep. There every hundred years a little bird

comes and whets its little beak on it. And when the

whole mountain is ground off, then the first second of

eternity has passed.”

karma (Sanskrit), Pàli: kamma: ‘action’, correctly

speaking denotes the wholesome and unwholesome

volitions (kusala- and akusala-cetanà) and their concomitant

mental factors, causing rebirth and shaping

the destiny of beings. These karmical volitions (kamma

cetanà) become manifest as wholesome or unwholesome

actions by body (kàya-kamma), speech (vacãkamma)

and mind (mano-kamma). Thus the Buddhist

term ‘karma’ by no means signifies the result of actions,

and quite certainly not the fate of man, or perhaps even

of whole nations (the so-called wholesale or masskarma),

misconceptions which, through the influence of

theosophy, have become widely spread in the West.

“Volition (cetanà), O monks, is what I call action

(cetanàhaü bhikkhave kammaü vadàmi), for through

volition one performs the action by body, speech or

mind.. There is karma (action), O monks, that ripens in

hell…. Karma that ripens in the animal world.. Karma

that ripens in the world of men…. Karma that ripens in

the heavenly world…. Threefold, however, is the fruit

of karma: ripening during the life-time (diññha-dhammavedanãya-

kamma), ripening in the next birth (upapajjavedanãya-

kamma), ripening in later births (aparàpariyavedanãya

kamma)….” (A.VI, 63).

– 150 –

The 3 conditions or roots (måla, q.v.) of unwholesome

karma (actions) are greed, hatred, delusion

(lobha, dosa, moha); those of wholesome karma are:

unselfishness (alobha), hatelessness (adosa = mettà,

good-will), undeludedness (amoha = pa¤¤à,

knowledge).

“Greed, O monks, is a condition for the arising of

karma; hatred is a condition for the arising of karma;

delusion is a condition for the arising of karma….”

(A. III, 109).

“The unwholesome actions are of 3 kinds, conditioned

by greed, or hate, or delusion.

“Killing… stealing… unlawful sexual intercourse…

lying… slandering… rude speech… foolish babble, if

practised, carried on, and frequently cultivated, leads to

rebirth in hell, or amongst the animals, or amongst the

ghosts” (A. III, 40). “He who kills and is cruel goes

either to hell or, if reborn as man, will be short-lived.

He who torments others will be afflicted with disease.

The angry one will look ugly, the envious one will be

without influence, the stingy one will be poor, the stubborn

one will be of low descent, the indolent one will

be without knowledge. In the contrary case, man will

be reborn in heaven or reborn as man, he will be longlived,

possessed of beauty, influence, noble descent

and knowledge” (cf. M. 135).

For the above 10-fold wholesome and unwholesome

course of action, see kamma-patha. For the

5 heinous crimes with immediate result, s. ànantarikakamma.

– 151 –

“Owners of their karma are the beings, heirs of their

karma, their karma is their womb from which they are

born, their karma is their friend, their refuge. Whatever

karma they perform, good or bad, thereof they will be

the heirs” (M. 135).

With regard to the time of the taking place of the

karma-result (vipàka), one distinguishes, as mentioned

above, 3 kinds of karma:

1. karma ripening during the life-time (diññhadhamma-

vedanãya kamma);

2. karma ripening in the next birth (upapajjavedanãya-

kamma);

3. karma ripening in later births (aparàpariyavedanãya-

kamma).

The first two kinds of karma may be without karmaresult

(vipàka), if the circumstances required for the

taking place of the karma-result are missing, or if,

through the preponderance of counteractive karma and

their being too weak, they are unable to produce any

result. In this case they are called ahosi-kamma,

lit. ‘karma that has been’, in other words, ineffectual

karma.

The third type of karma, however, which bears fruit

in later lives, will, whenever and wherever there is an

opportunity, be productive of karma-result. Before its

result has ripened, it will never become ineffective as

long as the life-process is kept going by craving and

ignorance.

According to the Com., e.g. Vis.M. XIX, the 1st of

the 7 karmical impulsive-moments (kamma javana;

– 152 –

s. javana) is considered as ‘karma ripening during the

life-time’, the 7th moment as ‘karma ripening in the

next birth’, the remaining 5 moments as ‘karma ripening

in later births’.

With regard to their functions one distinguishes:

1. regenerative (or productive) karma (janakakamma),

2. supportive (or consolidating) karma

(upatthambhaka-kamma),

3. counteractive (suppressive or frustrating) karma

(upapãëaka-kamma),

4. destructive (or supplanting) karma (upaghàtakaor

upacchedaka-kamma).

(1) produces the 5 groups of existence (corporeality,

feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness)

at rebirth as well as during life-continuity.

(2) does not produce karma-results but is only able

to maintain the already produced karma-results.

(3) counteracts or suppresses the karma-results.

(4) destroys the influence of a weaker karma and

effects only its own result.

With regard to the priority of their result one

distinguishes:

1. weighty karma (garuka-kamma),

2. habitual karma (àciõõaka– or bahula-kamma),

3. death-proximate karma (maraõàsanna-kamma),

4. stored-up karma (kañattà-kamma).

(1, 2) The weighty (garuka) and the habitual

(bahula) wholesome or unwholesome karma are

ripening earlier than the light and rarely performed

– 153 –

karma. (3) The death-proximate (maranàsanna) karma

– i.e. the wholesome or unwholesome volition present

immediately before death, which often may be the reflex

of some previously performed good or evil action

(kamma), or of a sign of it (kamma-nimitta), or of a

sign of the future existence (gati-nimitta) – produces

rebirth. (4) In the absence of any of these three actions

at the moment before death, the stored-up (kañattà)

karma will produce rebirth.

A real, and in the ultimate sense true, understanding

of Buddhist karma doctrine is possible only through

a deep insight into the impersonality (s. anattà) and

conditionality (s. pañiccasamuppàda, paccaya) of all

phenomena of existence. “Everywhere, in all the forms

of existence… such a one is beholding merely mental

and physical phenomena kept going by their being

bound up through causes and effects.

“No doer does he see behind the deeds, no recipient

apart from the karma-fruit. And with full insight he

clearly understands that the wise ones are using merely

conventional terms when, with regard to the taking

place of any action, they speak of a doer, or when they

speak of a receiver of the karma-results at their arising.

Therefore the ancient masters have said:

‘No doer of the deeds is found,

No one who ever reaps their fruits;

Empty phenomena roll on:

This view alone is right and true.

‘And whilst the deeds and their results

Roll on, based on conditions all,

There no beginning can be seen,

Just as it is with seed and tree.’ ” (Vis.M. XIX)

– 154 –

Karma (kamma-paccaya) is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.) (App.: Kamma).

Literature: Karma and Rebirth, by Nyanatiloka

(Wheel 9); Survival and Karma in Buddhist Perspective, by

K.N. Jayatilleke (Wheel 141/143); Kamma and its Fruit

(Wheel 221/224).

karma-accumulation: àyåhana (q.v.).

karma-formations: sankhàra, i.e. wholesome or unwholesome

volitions (cetanà) manifested as actions of

body, speech or mind, form the 2nd link of the formula

of dependent origination (pañicca-samuppàda, q.v.).

karma-process: s. bhava, pañiccasamuppàda.

karma-produced corporeality: s. samuññhàna.

karma-result: vipàka (q.v.).

karma-round: kamma vañña (s. vañña).

karmically acquired corporeality:

upàdiõõaråpa (q.v.).

karmically wholesome, unwholesome, neutral:

kusala (q.v.), akusala (q.v.), avyàkata (q.v.); cf. Tab. I.

karuõà: ‘compassion’, is one of the 4 sublime abodes

(brahma-vihàra, q.v.).

kasiõa: (perhaps related to Sanskrit krtsna, ‘all, complete,

whole’), is the name for a purely external device

to produce and develop concentration of mind and attain

the 4 absorptions (jhàna q.v.). It consists in concentrating

one’s full and undivided attention on one visible

– 155 –

object as preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta),

e.g. a colored spot or disc, or a piece of earth, or a pond

at some distance, etc., until at last one perceives, even

with the eyes closed, a mental reflex, the acquired

image (uggaha-nimitta). Now, while continuing to

direct one’s attention to this image, there may arise the

spotless and immovable counter-image (pañibhàganimitta),

and together with it the neighbourhood-concentration

(upacàra-samàdhi) will have been reached.

While still persevering in the concentration on the

object, one finally will reach a state of mind where all

sense-activity is suspended, where there is no more

seeing and hearing, no more perception of bodily

impression and feeling, i.e. the state of the 1st mental

absorption (jhàna, q.v.).

The 10 kasinas mentioned in the Suttas are: earthkasina,

water, fire, wind, blue, yellow, red, white,

space, and consciousness. “There are 10 kasina-spheres:

someone sees the earth kasina, above, below, on all

sides, undivided, unbounded… someone see the waterkasina,

above, below, etc.” (M. 77; D. 33)

Cf. abhibhàyatan, bhàvanà; further s. Fund. IV.

For space and consciousness-kasina we find in

Vis.M. V the names limited space-kasina

(paricchinnàkàsa-kasiõa;… s. App.) and light-kasina

(àloka-kasiõa).

For full description see Vis.M. IV-V; also

Atthasàlini Tr. I, 248.

kañattà-kamma: ‘stored-up karma’; s. karma.

– 156 –

kàya (lit: accumulation): ‘group’, ‘body’, may either

refer to the physical body (råpa-kàya) or to the mental

body (nàma-kàya). In the latter case it is either a collective

name for the mental groups (feeling, perception,

mental formations, consciousness; s. khandha), or

merely for feeling, perception and a few of the mental

formations (s. nàma), e.g. in kàya-lahutà, etc.

(cf. Tab. II). Kàya has this same meaning in the standard

description of the 3rd absorption (jhàna, q.v.) “and

he feels joy in his mind or his mental constitution

(kàya)”, and (e.g. Pug. 1-8) of the attainment of the

8 deliverances (vimokkha, q.v.); “having attained the

8 deliverances in his mind, or his person (kàya).” –

Kàya is also the 5th sense-organ, the body-organ;

s. àyatana, dhàtu, indriya.

kàya-gatà-sati: ‘mindfulness with regard to the body’,

refers sometimes (e.g. Vis.M. VIII, 2) only to the contemplation

on the 32 parts of the body, sometimes

(e.g. M. 119) to all the various meditations comprised

under the ‘contemplation of the body’ (kàyànupassanà),

the 1st of the 4 ‘foundations of mindfulness’ (satipaññhàna,

q.v.), consisting partly in concentration

(samàdhi) exercises, partly in insight (vipassanà) exercises.

On the other hand, the cemetery meditations

(sãvathika, q.v.) mentioned in the Satipaññhàna

S.(M. 10) are nearly the same as the 10 contemplations

of loathsomeness (asubha-bhàvanà, q.v.). of Vis.M. VI,

whereas elsewhere the contemplation on the 32 parts

of the body is called the ‘reflection on impurity’

(pañikkåla-sa¤¤à).

In such texts as: ‘One thing, O monks, developed

and repeatedly practised, leads to the attainment of

– 157 –

wisdom. It is the contemplation on the body’ (A. I), the

reference is to all exercises mentioned in the 1st

Satipaññhàna.

Vis.M. VIII, 2 gives a detailed description and explanation

of the method of developing the contemplation

on the 32 parts of the body. This exercise can

produce the 1st absorption only (jhàna, q.v.). The

stereotype text given in the Satipaññhàna Sutta and elsewhere

– but leaving out the brain – runs as follows:

“And further, O monks, the monk contemplates this

body from the soles of the feet upward, and from the

tops of the hairs downward, with skin stretched over it,

and filled with manifold impurities: ‘This body has hairs

of the head, hairs of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh,

sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm,

spleen, lungs, intestines, bowels, stomach, excrement,

bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, skin

grease, spittle, nasal mucus, oil of the joints, and

urine….”

Vis.M. VIII, 2 says “By repeating the words of this

exercise one will become well acquainted with the

wording, the mind will not rush here and there, the

different parts will become distinct and appear like a

row of fingers, or a row of hedge-poles. Now, just as

one repeats the exercise in words, one should do it also

in mind. The repeating in mind forms the condition for

the penetration of the characteristic marks…. He who

thus has examined the parts of the body as to colour,

shape, region, locality and limits, and considers them

one by one, and not too hurriedly, as something loathsome,

to such a one, while contemplating the body, all

– 158 –

these things at the same time are appearing distinctly

clear. But also when keeping one’s attention fixed outwardly

(i.e. to the bodies of other beings), and when

all the parts appear distinctly, then all men and animals

moving about lose the appearance of living beings and

appear like heaps of many different things. And it looks

as if those foods and drinks, being swallowed by them,

were being inserted into this heap of things. Now, while

again and again one is conceiving the idea ‘Disgusting!

Disgusting!’ – omitting in due course several parts –

gradually the attainment – concentration (appanàsamàdhi,

i.e. the concentration of the jhàna) will be

reached. In this connection, the appearing of forms… is

called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta), the arising

of loathsomeness, however, the counter-image

(pañibhàganimitta).”

kàya-kamma: ‘bodily action’; s. karma, kammapatha.

kàya-kamma¤¤atà, k.-lahutà, k.-mudutà,

k.-pàgu¤¤atà, k.-passaddhi, k.-ujukatà; s. Tab. II. For

passaddhi, s. further bojjhanga.

kàya-lahutà: agility or lightness of mental factors

(s. lahutà).

kàyànupassanà: ‘contemplation of the body’, is one of

the 4 foundations of mindfulness; s. satipaññhàna.

kàya-passaddhi: tranquillity of mental factors,

s. bojjhanga.

kàya-sakkhi: ‘body-witness’, is one of the 7 noble disciples

(s. ariya-puggala, B.). He is one who “in his own

person (lit. body) has attained the 8 deliverances

– 159 –

(vimokkha, q.v.), and after wisely understanding the

phenomena, the cankers have partly come to extinction”

(Pug. 32). In A. IX, 44 it is said: “A monk,

O brother, attains the 1st absorption (jhàna, q.v.), and

as far as this domain reaches, so far he has realized it in

his own person. Thus the Blessed One calls such a person

a body-witness in certain respects. (The same is

then repeated with regard to the 7 higher absorptions).

Further again, O brother, the monk attains the extinction

of perception and feeling (s. nirodha-samàpatti),

and after wisely understanding the phenomena, all the

cankers come to extinction. Thus, O brother, the

Blessed One calls such a person a body-witness in all

respects.”

kàya-vi¤¤atti: s. vi¤¤atti.

khalu-pacchà-bhattik’anga: s. dhutanga.

khaõa: ‘moment’; s. citta-kkhaõa.

khandha: the 5 ‘groups (of existence)’ or ‘groups of

clinging’ (upàdànakkhandha); alternative renderings:

aggregates, categories of clinging’s objects. These are

the 5 aspects in which the Buddha has summed up all

the physical and mental phenomena of existence, and

which appear to the ignorant man as his ego, or

personality, to wit:

(1) the corporeality group (råpa-kkhandha),

(2) the feeling group (vedanà-kkhandha),

(3) the perception group (sa¤¤à-kkhandha),

(4) the mental-formation group (sankhàrakkhandha),

(5) the consciousness-group (vi¤¤àõa-kkhandha).

– 160 –

“Whatever there exists of corporeal things, whether

past, present or future, one’s own or external, gross or

subtle, lofty or low, far or near, all that belongs to the

corporeality group. Whatever there exists of feeling…

of perception… of mental formations… of consciousness…

all that belongs to the consciousness-group”

(S. XXII, 48). – Another division is that into the

2 groups: mind (2-5) and corporeality (1) (nàmaråpa),

whilst in Dhamma Sanganã, the first book of the

Abhidhamma, all the phenomena are treated by way of

3 groups: consciousness (5), mental factors (2-4), corporeality

(1), in Pàli citta, cetasika, råpa. Cf. Guide I.

What is called individual existence is in reality

nothing but a mere process of those mental and physical

phenomena, a process that since time immemorial

has been going on, and that also after death will still

continue for unthinkably long periods of time. These

5 groups, however, neither singly nor collectively constitute

any self-dependent real ego-entity, or personality

(attà), nor is there to be found any such entity

apart from them. Hence the belief in such an ego-entity

or personality, as real in the ultimate sense, proves a

mere illusion.

“When all constituent parts are there,

The designation ‘cart’ is used;

Just so, where the five groups exist,

Of ‘living being’ do we speak.” (S. V. 10).

The fact ought to be emphasized here that these

5 groups, correctly speaking, merely form an abstract

classification by the Buddha, but that they as such,

i.e. as just these 5 complete groups, have no real exist-

161 –

ence, since only single representatives of these groups,

mostly variable, can arise with any state of consciousness.

For example, with one and the same unit of consciousness

only one single kind of feeling, say joy or

sorrow, can be associated and never more than one.

Similarly, two different perceptions cannot arise at the

same moment. Also, of the various kinds of sense-cognition

or consciousness, only one can be present at a

time, for example, seeing, hearing or inner consciousness,

etc. Of the 50 mental formations, however, a

smaller or larger number are always associated with

every state of consciousness, as we shall see later on.

Some writers on Buddhism who have not understood

that the five khandha are just classificatory groupings,

have conceived them as compact entities (‘heaps’,

‘bundles’), while actually, as stated above, the groups

never exist as such, i.e. they never occur in a simultaneous

totality of all their constituents. Also those single

constituents of a group which are present in any given

body- and -mind process, are of an evanescent nature,

and so also their varying combinations. Feeling, perception

and mental formations are only different aspects

and functions of a single unit of consciousness. They

are to consciousness what redness, softness, sweetness,

etc. are to an apple and have as little separate

existence as those qualities.

In S. XXII, 56, there is the following short definition

of these 5 groups:

“What, O monks, is the corporeality-group? The

4 primary elements (mahà-bhåta or dhàtu) and

corporeality depending thereon, this is called the

corporeality-group.

– 162 –

“What, O monks, is the feeling-group? There are

6 classes of feeling: due to visual impression, to sound

impression, to odour impression, to taste impression, to

bodily impression, and to mind impression….

“What, O monks, is the perception-group? There

are 6 classes of perception: perception of visual objects,

of sounds, of odours, of tastes, of bodily impressions,

and of mental impressions….

“What, O monks, is the group of mental formations?

There are 6 classes of volitional states (cetanà):

with regard to visual objects, to sounds, to odours, to

tastes, to bodily impressions and to mind objects….

“What, O monks, is the consciousness-group? There

are 6 classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness, earconsciousness,

nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness,

body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness.”

About the inseparability of the groups it is said:

‘‘Whatever, O brother, there exists of feeling, of

perception and of mental formations, these things are

associated, not dissociated, and it is impossible to separate

one from the other and show their difference. For

whatever one feels, one perceives; and whatever one

perceives, of this one is conscious” (M. 43).

Further: “Impossible is it for anyone to explain the

passing out of one existence and the entering into a

new existence, or the growth, increase and development

of consciousness independent of corporeality,

feeling, perception and mental formations” (S. XII, 53).

For the inseparability and mutual conditionality of

the 4 mental groups s. paccaya (6, 7).

– 163 –

Regarding the impersonality (anattà) and

emptiness (su¤¤atà) of the 5 groups, it is said in

S. XXII, 49:

“Whatever there is of corporeality, feeling, perception,

mental formations and consciousness, whether

past, present or future, one’s own or external, gross or

subtle, lofty or low, far or near, this one should understand

according to reality and true wisdom: ‘This does

not belong to me, this am I not, this is not my Ego.’ ”

Further in S. XXII, 95: “Suppose that a man who is

not blind were to behold the many bubbles on the

Ganges as they are driving along; and he should watch

them and carefully examine them. After carefully examining

them, however, they will appear to him empty,

unreal and unsubstantial. In exactly the same way does

the monk behold all the corporeal phenomena… feelings…

perceptions… mental formations… states of consciousness,

whether they be of the past, present or

future… far or near. And he watches them and examines

them carefully; and after carefully examining

them, they appear to him empty, unreal and

unsubstantial.”

The 5 groups are compared, respectively, to a lump

of froth, a bubble, a mirage, a coreless plantain stem,

and a conjuring trick (S. XXII, 95).

See the Khandha Saüyutta (S. XXII); Vis.M. XIV.

– 164 –

Summary of the 5 Groups

I. Corporeality Group

(råpa-kkhandha)

A. Underived (no-upàdà): 4 elements

the solid, or earth-element (pañhavã-dhàtu)

the liquid, or water-element (àpo-dhàtu)

heat, or fire-element (tejo-dhàtu)

motion, or wind-element (vàyo-dhàtu)

B. Derived (upàdà): 24 secondary phenomena

Physical sense-organs of: seeing, hearing, smelling,

tasting, body

Physical sense-objects: form, sound, odour, taste,

(bodily impacts)

‘Bodily impacts’ (photthabba) are generally omitted in

this list, because these physical objects of body-sensitivity are

identical with the afore-mentioned solid element, heat and

motion element. Hence their inclusion under ‘derived

corporeality’ would be a duplication.

femininity (itthindriya)

virility (purisindriya)

physical base of mind (hadaya-vatthu, q.v.)

bodily expression (kàya-vi¤¤atti; s. vi¤¤atti)

verbal expression (vacã-vi¤¤atti)

physical life (råpa jãvita; s. jãvita)

space element (àkàsa-dhàtu, q.v.)

physical agility (råpassa lahutà)

physical elasticity (råpassa mudutà)

– 165 –

physical adaptability (råpassa kamma¤¤atà)

physical growth (råpassa upacaya)

physical continuity (råpassa santati; s. santàna)

decay (jarà, q.v.)

impermanence (aniccatà)

nutriment (àhàra, q.v.)

II. Feeling Group

(vedanà-kkhandha)

All feelings may, according to their nature, be classified

as 5 kinds:

bodily agreeable feeling : sukha = kàyikà sukhà vedanà

bodily painful feeling : dukkha = kàyikà dukkhà vedanà

mentally agreeable feeling : somanassa = cetasikà sukhà vedanà

mentally painful feeling : domanassa = cetasikà dukkhà vedanà

indifferent feeling : upekkhà = adukkha-m-asukhà vedanà

III. Perception Group

(sa¤¤à-kkhandha)

All perceptions are divided into 6 classes: perception of

form, sound, odour, taste, bodily impression, and mental

impression.

IV. Group of Mental Formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha)

This group comprises 50 mental phenomena, of

which 11 are general psychological elements, 25 lofty

(sobhana) qualities, 14 karmically unwholesome

qualities. Cf. Tab. 11.

– 166 –

V. Consciousness Group

(vi¤¤àõa-kkhandha)

The Suttas divide consciousness, according to the

senses, into 6 classes: eye-, ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-,

mind-consciousness.

The Abhidhamma and commentaries, however,

distinguish, from the karmical or moral viewpoint,

89 classes of consciousness. Cf. vi¤¤àõa and Tab. 1.

The moral quality of feeling, perception and consciousness

is determined by the mental formations.

khandha-parinibbàna: s. nibbàna.

khandha-santàna: s. santàna.

khanti: ‘patience’, forbearance’, is one of the

10 perfections (pàramã, q.v.).

khayànupassanà: ‘contemplation of dissolution’, is

one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (s. vipassanà).

khióóa-padosikà devà: ‘the celestial beings corruptible

by pleasures’, are a class of devas (q.v.) of the

sensuous sphere. They waste their time in merriment,

play and enjoyment, and thereby become thoughtless,

and in their thoughtlessness they fall from that world

(D. 1; 24).

khãõàsava: ‘the one in whom all cankers are destroyed’

is a name for the Arahat, or Holy One; s. àsava.

kicca ‘function’. Regarding the 14 functions of

consciousness, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

– 167 –

kilesa: ‘defilements’, are mind-defiling, unwholesome

qualities. Vis.M. XXII, 49, 65: “There are 10 defilements,

thus called because they are themselves defiled,

and because they defile the mental factors associated

with them. They are: (1) greed (lobha), (2) hate

(dosa), (3) delusion (moha), (4) conceit (màna),

(5) speculative views (diññhi), (6) skeptical doubt

(vicikicchà), (7) mental torpor (thãna), (8) restlessness

(uddhacca); (9) shamelessness (ahirika), (10) lack of

moral dread or unconscientiousness (anottappa).” For

1-3, s. måla; 4, s. màna; 5, s. diññhi; 6-8, s. nãvaraõa;

9 and 10, s. ahirika-anottappa.

The ten are explained in Dhs. 1229f and enumerated

in Vibh. XII. No classification of the k. is found in

the Suttas, though the term occurs quite often in them.

For the related term, upakkilesa (q.v.; ‘impurities’) different

lists are given – (App.).

kilesa-kàma: ‘sensuality considered as defilement’

(s. kilesa) might well be called ‘subjective sensuality’, in

contradistinction to ‘objective sensuality’ (vatthukàma),

i.e. the sensuous objects (kàma-guõa). Cf. kàma.

kilesa-parinibbàna: s. nibbàna (1).

killing: s. karma, kammapatha, sikkhàpada.

ki¤cana: ‘something’, i.e. something evil that sticks or

adheres to character. ‘Evil appendant’, is a name for the

3 unwholesome roots (måla). “There are 3 appendants:

greed (lobha) is an appendant, hate (dosa) is an

appendant, delusion (moha) is an appendant” (D. 33).

‘Freed from appendants’ (aki¤cana) is a term for the

perfectly Holy One (Arahat).

– 168 –

kiriya (or kriya)-citta: ‘functional consciousness’ or

‘karmically inoperative consciousness’, is a name for

such states of consciousness as are neither karmically

wholesome (kusala), nor unwholesome (akusala), nor

karma-results (vipàka); that is, they function independently

of karma. Thus are also called all those worldly

mental states in the Arahat which are accompanied by

2 or 3 noble roots (greedlessness, hatelessness, undeludedness),

being in the Arahat karmically neutral and

corresponding to the karmically wholesome states of a

non-Arahat (s. Tab. 1-8 and 73-89), as well as the rootless

mirth-producing (hasituppàda) mind-consciousness-

element of the Arahat (Tab. 72); further, that

mind-element (mano-dhàtu) which performs the

function of advertence (àvajjana) to the sense object

(Tab. 70), and that mind-consciousness-element

(manovi¤¤àõa-dhàtu) which performs the functions of

deciding (votthapana) and advertence to the mental

object (Tab. 71). The last-named 2 elements, of course,

occur in all beings.

Together with karma-resultant consciousness

(vipàka) it belongs to the group of ‘karmically neutral

consciousness’ (avyàkata). See Tab. I (last column). –

(App.).

knowledge: cf. pa¤¤à, ¤àõa, vijjà, vipassanà, abhi¤¤à.

kolankola: ‘passing from one noble family to another’,

is the name for one of the 3 kinds of Sotàpanna (q.v.).

kriya-citta = kiriya (q.v.).

kukkucca: lit. ‘wrongly-performed-ness’ (ku+krta+ya),

i.e. scruples, remorse, uneasiness of conscience, worry,

– 169 –

is one of the karmically unwholesome (akusala) mental

faculties (Tab. II) which, whenever it arises, is associated

with hateful (discontented) consciousness (Tab. I

and III, 30, 31). It is the ‘repentance over wrong things

done, and right things neglected’ (Com. To A. I). Restlessness

and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca), combined,

are counted as one of the 5 mental hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.).

kuppa-dhamma ‘liable to perturbation’, is one who

has not yet attained full mastery over the absorptions.

In Pug. 3 it is said: “What person is liable to perturbation?

Such a person gains the attainments of the finematerial

and immaterial sphere (s. avacara). But he

does not gain them at his wish, nor without toil and

exertion; and not at his wish as regards place, object

and duration, does he enter them or arise from them.

Thus it is well possible that in case of such a person,

through negligence, the attainments will become perturbed.

This person is liable to perturbation.”

kusala: ‘karmically wholesome’ or ‘profitable’,

salutary, morally good, (skillful) Connotations of the

term, according to Com. (Atthasàlini), are: of good

health, blameless, productive of favourable karmaresult,

skillful. It should be noted that Com. excludes

the meaning ‘skillful’, when the term is applied to states

of consciousness.

It is defined in M. 9 as the 10 wholesome courses of

action (s. kammapatha). In psychological terms, ‘karmically

wholesome’ are all those karmical volitions

(kamma-cetanà) and the consciousness and mental factors

associated therewith, which are accompanied by

– 170 –

2 or 3 wholesome roots (s. måla), i.e. by greedlessness

(alobha) and hatelessness (adosa), and in some cases

also by non-delusion (amoha: wisdom, understanding).

Such states of consciousness are regarded as ‘karmically

wholesome’ as they are causes of favourable karma results

and contain the seeds of a happy destiny or rebirth.

From this explanation, two facts should be noted:

(1) it is volition that makes a state of consciousness, or

an act, ‘good’ or ‘bad’; (2) the moral criterion in Buddhism

is the presence or absence of the 3 wholesome or

moral roots (s. måla).

The above explanations refer to mundane

(lokiya, q.v.) wholesome consciousness. Supermundane

wholesome (lokuttara-kusala) states, i.e. the four paths

of sanctity (s. ariyapuggala), have as results only the

corresponding four fruitions; they do not constitute

karma, nor do they lead to rebirth, and this applies also

to the good actions of an Arahat (Tab. I, 73-80) and his

meditative states (Tab. 1, 81-89), which are all karmically

inoperative (functional; s. kiriya).

Kusala belongs to a threefold division of all consciousness,

as found in the Abhidhamma (Dhs.), into

wholesome (kusala), unwholesome (akusala) and

karmically neutral (avyàkata), which is the first of the

triads (tika) in the Abhidhamma schedule (màtikà);

s. Guide, pp. 4ff., 12ff; Vis.M. XIV, 83ff.

kusala-kammapatha: ‘wholesome course of action’;

s. kammapatha.

kusala-måla: the ‘wholesome roots’ or ‘roots of

wholesome action’, are greedlessness (alobha),

hatelessness (adosa), and non-delusion (amoha;

– 171 –

s. måla). They are identical with kusala-hetu

(s. paccaya, 1).

kusala-vipàka: the (mental) ‘karma-result of

wholesome karma’ (s. karma).

– 172 –

L

lahutà: ‘lightness’, or ‘agility’, may be of 3 kinds: of

corporeality (råpassa lahutà; s. khandha, I), of mental

factors (kàya-lahutà), and of consciousness (cittalahutà).

Cf. Tab. II.

lakkhaõa: ‘characteristics’. For the 3 ch. of existence,

s. ti-lakkhaõa.

law: dhamma (q.v.).

learning, wisdom based on: s. pa¤¤à.

liberality: dàna (q.v.), càga (q.v.).

liberation: s. vimokkha.

life-infatuation: s. mada.

light, perception of: s. àloka-sa¤¤à.

light-kasiõa: s. kasiõa.

lightness (of corporeality, mental factors and

consciousness): lahutà (q.v.).

loathsomeness (of the body): s. asubha, sivathikà,

kàyagatàsati.

lobha: ‘greed’, is one of the 3 unwholesome roots

(måla, q.v.) and a synonym of ràga (q.v.) and

taõhà (q.v.).

lobha-carita: ‘greedy-natured’, s. carita.

– 173 –

lofty consciousness: s. sobhana.

lohita-kasiõa: ‘red-kasiõa’, s. kasiõa.

loka: ‘world’, denotes the 3 spheres of existence comprising

the whole universe, i.e. (1) the sensuous world

(kàma-loka), or the world of the 5 senses; (2) the finematerial

world (råpa-loka), corresponding to the 4 finematerial

absorptions (s. jhàna 1-4); (3) the immaterial

world (aråpa-loka), corresponding to the 4 immaterial

absorptions (s. jhàna, 5-8).

The sensuous world comprises the hells (niraya),

the animal kingdom (tiracchàna-yoni), the ghost-realm

(peta-loka), the demon world (asura-nikàya), the

human world (manussa-loka) and the 6 lower celestial

worlds (s. deva I). In the fine-material world (s. deva II)

still exist the faculties of seeing and hearing, which,

together with the other sense faculties, are temporarily

suspended in the 4 absorptions. In the immaterial

world (s. deva III) there is no corporeality whatsoever,

only the four mental groups (s. khandha) exist there.

Though the term loka is not applied in the Suttas to

those 3 worlds, but only the term bhava, ‘existence’

(e.g. M. 43), there is no doubt that the teaching about

the 3 worlds belongs to the earliest, i.e. sutta-period, of

the Buddhist scriptures, as many relevant passages

show.

loka-dhamma: ‘worldly conditions’. “Eight things are

called worldly conditions, since they arise in connection

with worldly life, namely: gain and loss, honour

and dishonour, happiness and misery, praise and

blame” (Vis.M. XXII). Cf. also A. VIII, 5.

– 174 –

lokiya: ‘mundane’, are all those states of consciousness

and mental factors – arising in the worldling, as well as

in the Noble One – which are not associated with the

supermundane (lokuttara; s. the foll.) paths and fruitions

of sotàpatti, etc. See ariyapuggala, A.

lokuttara: ‘supermundane’, is a term for the 4 paths

and 4 fruitions of sotàpatti, etc. (s. ariya-puggala), with

Nibbàna as ninth. Hence one speaks of ‘9 supermundane

things’ (nava-lokuttara-dhamma). Cf. prec.

loving-kindness: mettà; s. brahmavihàra.

lower fetters, the 5: s. saüyojana.

lower worlds, the 4: apàya (q.v.).

low speech: tiracchàna-kathà (q.v.).

lust: s. ràga.

– 175 –

M

macchariya: ‘stinginess’, avarice. “There are 5 kinds of

stinginess, O monks; regarding the dwelling place,

regarding families, regarding gain, regarding recognition,

regarding mental things’ (A. IX, 49; Pug. 56).

mada: ‘infatuation’. “Infatuation is of 3 kinds: youthinfatuation,

health-infatuation, life-infatuation” (D. 33).

“Infatuated by youth-infatuation, by health-infatuation

and by life-infatuation, the ignorant worldling pursues

an evil course in bodily actions, speech and thought,

and thereby, at the dissolution of the body, after death,

passes to a lower world, to a woeful course of existence,

to a state of suffering and hell” (A. III, 39).

magga: ‘path’. 1. For the 4 supermundane paths

(lokuttara-magga), s. ariya-puggala – 2. The Eightfold

Path (aññhangika-magga) is the path leading to the

extinction of suffering, i.e. the last of the 4 Noble

Truths (sacca, q.v.), namely:

1. Right view (sammà-diññhi) III. Wisdom

2. Right thought (sammà-sankappa) (pa¤¤à)

3. Right speech (sammà-vàcà)

4. Right bodily action (sammà-kammanta) I. Morality

5. Right livelihood (sammà-àjãva) (sãla)

6. Right effort (sammà-vàyàma)

7. Right mindfulness (sammà-sati) II. Concentration

8. Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi) (samàdhi)

– 176 –

1. Right view or right understanding (sammà-diññhi)

is the understanding of the 4 Noble Truths about the

universality of suffering (unsatisfactoriness), of its origin,

its cessation, and the path leading to that cessation.

– See the Discourse on ‘Right Understanding’ (M. 9, tr.

and Com. in ‘R. Und.’).

2. Right thought (sammà-sankappa): thoughts free

from sensuous desire, from ill-will, and cruelty.

3. Right speech (sammà-vàcà): abstaining from

lying, tale-bearing, harsh language, and foolish babble.

4 Right bodily action (sammà-kammanta): abstaining

from killing, stealing, and unlawful sexual intercourse.

5. Right livelihood (sammà-àjãva): abstaining from

a livelihood that brings harm to other beings, such as

trading in arms, in living beings, intoxicating drinks,

poison; slaughtering, fishing, soldiering, deceit, treachery

soothsaying, trickery, usury, etc.

6. Right effort (sammà-vàyàma): the effort of

avoiding or overcoming evil and unwholesome things,

and of developing and maintaining wholesome things

(s. padhàna).

7. Right mindfulness (sammà-sati): mindfulness

and awareness in contemplating body, feelings, mind,

and mind-objects (s. sati, satipaññhàna).

8. Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi):

concentration of mind associated with wholesome

– 177 –

(kusala) consciousness, which eventually may reach the

absorptions (jhàna, q.v.). Cf. samàdhi.

There are to be distinguished 2 kinds of concentration,

mundane (lokiya) and supermundane (lokuttara)

concentration. The latter is associated with those states

of consciousness known as the 4 supermundane paths

and fruitions (s. ariya-puggala). As it is said in M. 117:

“I tell you, O monks, there are 2 kinds of right view:

the understanding that it is good to give alms and offerings,

that both good and evil actions will bear fruit and

will be followed by results…. This, O monks, is a view

which, though still subject to the cankers, is meritorious,

yields worldly fruits, and brings good results. But

whatever there is of wisdom, of penetration, of right

view conjoined with the path – the holy path being

pursued, this is called the supermundane right view

(lokuttara-sammà-diññhi), which is not of the world, but

which is supermundane and conjoined with the path.”

In a similar way the remaining links of the path are

to be understood.

As many of those who have written about the Eightfold

Path have misunderstood its true nature, it is therefore

appropriate to add here a few elucidating remarks

about it, as this path is fundamental for the understanding

and practice of the Buddha’s teaching.

First of all, the figurative expression ‘path’ should

not be interpreted to mean that one has to advance

step by step in the sequence of the enumeration until,

after successively passing through all the eight stages,

– 178 –

one finally may reach one’s destination, Nibbàna. If this

really were the case, one should have realized, first of

all, right view and penetration of the truth, even before

one could hope to proceed to the next steps, right

thought and right speech; and each preceding stage

would be the indispensable foundation and condition

for each succeeding stage. In reality, however, the links

3-5 constituting moral training (sãla), are the first

3 links to be cultivated, then the links 6-8 constituting

mental training (samàdhi), and at last right view, etc.

constituting wisdom (pa¤¤à).

It is, however, true that a really unshakable and

safe foundation to the path is provided only by right

view which, starting from the tiniest germ of faith and

knowledge, gradually, step by step, develops into penetrating

insight (vipassanà) and thus forms the immediate

condition for the entrance into the 4 supermundane

paths and fruits of holiness, and for the realization of

Nibbàna. Only with regard to this highest form of

supermundane insight, may we indeed say that all the

remaining links of the path are nothing but the outcome

and the accompaniments of right view.

Regarding the mundane (lokiya) eightfold path,

however, its links may arise without the first link, right

view.

Here it must also be emphasized that the links of

the path not only do not arise one after the other, as

already indicated, but also that they, at least in part,

arise simultaneously as inseparably associated mental

factors in one and the same state of consciousness.

Thus, for instance, under all circumstances at least

4 links are inseparably bound up with any karmically

– 179 –

wholesome consciousness, namely 2, 6, 7 and 8,

i.e. right thought, right effort, right mindfulness and

right concentration (M. 117), so that as soon as any

one of these links arises, the three others also do so. On

the other hand, right view is not necessarily present in

every wholesome state of consciousness.

Magga is one of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya 18).

Literature: The Noble Eightfold Path and its Factors

Explained, by Ledi Sayadaw (Wheel 245/247). –

The Buddha’s Ancient Path, by Piyadassi Thera (BPS).-

The Noble Eightfold Path, by Bhikkhu Bodhi

(Wheel 308/311).

maggàmagga-¤àõadassana-visuddhi: ‘purification

by knowledge of what is path and not-path’, is one of

the 7 stages of purification (visuddhi V, q.v.).

magga-paccaya: ‘path as a condition’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

magical powers: s. iddhi; abhi¤¤à (1).

mahà-bhåta: the 4 ‘primary elements’, is another

name for the 4 elements (dhàtu) underlying all corporeality;

s. dhàtu.

mahà-brahmàno: the ‘great gods’, are a class of

heavenly beings in the fine-material world; s. deva, II.

mahaggata: lit., ‘grown great’, i.e. ‘developed’, exalted,

supernormal. As mahaggata-citta, it is the state of

‘developed consciousness’, attained in the fine-material

and immaterial absorptions (s. jhàna); it is mentioned

in the mind-contemplation of the Satipaññhàna Sutta

(M. 10). – As mahaggatàrammaõa, it is the ‘developed

– 180 –

mental object’ of those absorptions and is mentioned in

the ‘object triad’ of the Abhidhamma schedule and

Dhs. (s. Guide, p. 6).

mahàpurisa-vitakka: the 8 ‘thoughts of a great man’,

are described in A. VIII, 30, and D. 34.

mahà-vipassanà: the 18 ‘chief kinds of insight’;

s. vipassanà.

maintain: effort to maintain wholesome things;

s. padhàna.

majjhimà-pañipadà: ‘Middle Path’, is the Noble Eightfold

Path which, by avoiding the two extremes of sensual

lust and self-torment, leads to enlightenment and

deliverance from suffering.

To give oneself up to indulgence in sensual pleasure

(kàma-sukha), the base, common, vulgar, unholy,

unprofitable; and also to give oneself up to self-torment

(atta-kilamatha), the painful, unholy, unprofitable,

both these two extremes the Perfect One has

avoided and has found the Middle Path (s. magga),

which causes one both to see and to know, and which

leads to peace, to discernment, to enlightenment, to

Nibbàna. It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the way that

leads to the extinction of suffering, namely: right

understanding, right thought, right speech, right bodily

action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness,

and right concentration” (S. LVI, 11).

mala: ‘stains’, is a name for the 3 karmically unwholesome

roots (akusala-måla); greed, hate and delusion

(lobha, dosa, moha).

– 181 –

màna: ‘conceit’, pride, is one of the 10 fetters binding

to existence (s. saüyojana). It vanishes completely only

at the entrance to Arahatship, or Holiness (cf. asmimàna).

It is further one of the proclivities (s. anusaya)

and defilements (s. kilesa).

The (equality-) conceit (màna), the inferiorityconceit

(omàna) and the superiority-conceit (atimàna):

this threefold conceit should be overcome. For, after

overcoming this threefold conceit, the monk, through

the full penetration of conceit, is said to have put an

end suffering” (A. VI, 49).

“Those ascetics and brahman priests who, relying

on this impermanent, miserable and transitory nature

of corporeality, feelings, perceptions, mental formations

and consciousness, fancy: ‘Better am I’, or ‘Equal

am I’, or ‘Worse am I’, all these imagine thus through

not understanding reality” (S. XXII, 49).

In reality no ego-entity is to be found. Cf. anattà.

manasikàra: ‘attention’, ‘mental advertence’,

‘reflection’.

1. As a psychological term, attention belongs to the

formation-group (sankhàra-kkhandha; s. Tab. II) and is

one of the 7 mental factors (cetasika) that are inseparably

associated with all states of consciousness

(s. cetanà). In M. 9, it is given as one of the factors

representative of mind (nàma) It is the mind’s first

‘confrontation with an object’ and ‘binds the associated

mental factors to the object.’ It is, therefore, the prominent

factor in two specific classes of consciousness:

i.e. ‘advertence (àvajjana, q.v.) at the five sense-doors’

– 182 –

(Tab. I, 70) and at the mind-door (Tab. I, 71). These

two states of consciousness, breaking through the subconscious

life-continuum (bhavanga), form the first

stage in the perceptual process (citta-vãthi; s. vi¤¤àõakicca).

See Vis.M. XIV, 152.

2. In a more general sense, the term appears frequently

in the Suttas as yoniso-manasikàra, ‘wise (or

reasoned, methodical) attention’ or ‘wise reflection’. It

is said, in M. 2, to counteract the cankers (àsava, q.v.); it

is a condition for the arising of right view (s. M. 43), of

Stream-entry (s. sotàpattiyanga), and of the factors of

enlightenment (s. S. XLVI, 2.49,51). – ‘Unwise attention’

(ayoniso-manasikàra) leads to the arising of the

cankers (s. M. 2) and of the five hindrances

(s. S. XLVI, 2.51).

manàyatana: ‘mind-base’, is a collective term for all

the different states of consciousness; s. àyatana.

mangala: means, in general usage, anything regarded

as ‘auspicious’ ‘lucky’, or a ‘good omen’. Against the contemporary

superstitions notions about it, the Buddha, in

the Mahà-mangala Sutta (Sn., vv. 258 ff.), set forth

36 ‘blessings’ that are truly auspicious, i.e. conducive to

happiness, beginning with the ‘avoidance of bad company’

and ending with a ‘serene mind’. It is one of the

most popular Suttas in Buddhist countries, and a fundamental

text on Buddhist lay ethics.

Tr. in Everyman’s Ethics (Wheel 14). See Life’s Highest

Blessings, by Dr. R. L. Soni. (Wheel 254/256).

– 183 –

mano: ‘mind’, is in the Abhidhamma used as synonym

of vi¤¤àõa (consciousness) and citta (state of consciousness,

mind). According to the Com. to Vis.M., it

sometimes means sub-consciousness (s. bhavanga-sota).

mano-dhàtu: ‘mind-element’, is one of the 18 elements

(s. dhàtu II). This term, unlike manàyatana, does

not apply to the whole of consciousness, but designates

only that special element of consciousness which first,

at the beginning of the process of sense-perception,

performs the function of advertence (àvajjana;

Tab. I, 70) to the sense-object and, then after twice

having become conscious of it performs the function of

reception (sampaticchana; Tab I 39, 55) into mindconsciousness.

See vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

mano-kamma: ‘mental action’; s. karma, kammapatha.

manomayà iddhi: s. iddhi.

manopadosika-deva: ‘the celestial beings corruptible

by temper’, are a class of devas (q.v.) of the sensuous

sphere. “They spend their time in becoming annoyed

with one another, and getting into a temper, and thus

by being bodily and mentally exhausted, they pass

from that world” (D. 1; 24).

manopavicàra: ‘mental indulging’. There are mentioned

18 ways of indulging: 6 in gladness

(somanassåpavicàra), 6 in sorrow (domanassa), 6 in

indifference (upekkhà). “Perceiving with the eye a

visible form… hearing with the ear a sound… being in

mind conscious of an object, one indulges in the joyproducing

object, the sorrow-producing object, the

– 184 –

indifference-producing object…” (M. 137; A. III, 61). –

In the Com. to A., upavicàra is said to be identical with

vitakka-vicàra (q.v.).

mano-sa¤cetanà: ‘mental volition’; s. àhàra.

manovin¤àõa-dhàtu: ‘mind-consciousness element’,

one of the 18 ‘elements’ (s. dhàtu II). This term is

generally used as a name for that consciousnesselement

which performs the functions of investigation

(santãraõa), determining (votthapana), registering

(tadàrammaõa), etc. See Tab. I, 40, 41, 56, 71, 72.

Màra: (lit. ‘the killer’), is the Buddhist ‘Tempter-figure.

He is often called ‘Màra the Evil One’ (pàpimà màro) or

Namuci (lit. ‘the non-liberator’, i.e. the opponent of

liberation). He appears in the texts both as a real person

(i.e. as a deity) and as personification of evil and

passions, of the totality of worldly existence, and of

death. Later Pàli literature often speaks of a ‘fivefold

Màra’ (pa¤ca-màra): 1. M. as a deity (devaputta-màra),

2. the M. of defilements (kilesa-m.), 3. the M. of the

aggregates (khandha-m.), 4. the M. of the karma-formations

(kamma-m.), and 5. Màra as death (maccu-m.).

As a real person, M. is regarded as the deity ruling

over the highest heaven of the sensuous sphere

(kàmàvacara), that of the paranimmitavasavatti-devas,

the ‘deities wielding power over the creations of others’

(Com. to M. 1). According to tradition, when the Bodhisatta

was seated under the Bodhi-tree, Màra tried in

vain to obstruct his attainment of Enlightenment, first

by frightening him through his hosts of demons, etc.,

and then by his 3 daughters’ allurements. This episode

– 185 –

is called ‘Màra’s war’ (màra-yuddha). For 7 years

M. had followed the Buddha, looking for any weakness

in him; that is, 6 years before the Enlightenment and

one year after it (Sn. v. 446). He also tried to induce

the Buddha to pass away into Parinibbàna without

proclaiming the Dhamma, and also when the time for

the Buddha’s Parinibbàna had come, he urged him on.

But the Buddha acted on his own insight in both cases.

See D. 16.

For (3) M. as the aggregates, s. S. XXIII, 1, 11,

12, 23. See Padhàna Sutta (Sn. v. 425ff.); Màra

Saüyutta (S. IV).

maraõa: ‘death’, in ordinary usage, means the disappearance

of the vital faculty confined to a single lifetime,

and therewith of the psycho-physical life-process

conventionally called ‘man, animal, personality,

ego’, etc. Strictly speaking, however, death is the

continually repeated dissolution and vanishing of each

momentary physical-mental combination, and thus it

takes place every moment. About this momentaneity of

existence, it is said in Vis.M. VIII:

“In the absolute sense, beings have only a very

short moment to live, life lasting as long as a single

moment of consciousness lasts. Just as a cart-wheel,

whether rolling or whether at a standstill, at all times

only rests on a single point of its periphery, even so the

life of a living being lasts only for the duration of a

single moment of consciousness. As soon as that

moment ceases, the being also ceases. For it is said:

‘The being of the past moment of consciousness has

lived, but does not live now, nor will it live in future.

– 186 –

The being of the future moment has not yet lived, nor

does it live now, but it will live in the future. The being

of the present moment has not lived, it does live just

now, but it will not live in the future.’ ”

In another sense, the coming to an end of the

psycho-physical life-process of the Arahat, or perfectly

Holy One, at the moment of his passing away may be

called the final and ultimate death, as up to that

moment the psycho-physical life-process was still going

on from life to life.

Death, in the ordinary sense, combined with old

age, forms the 12th link in the formula of dependent

origination (pañicca-samuppàda q.v.).

For death as a subject of meditation,

s. maraõànussati; as a function of consciousness,

s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

maraõàsanna-kamma: s. karma.

maraõànussati: ‘recollection of death’, is one of the

10 recollections treated in detail in Vis.M. VIII:

‘‘Recollection of death, developed and frequently

practised, yields great reward, great blessing, has

Deathlessness as its goal and object. But how may such

recollection be developed?

“As soon as the day declines, or as the night vanishes

and the day is breaking, the monk thus reflects:

‘Truly, there are many possibilities for me to die: I may

be bitten by a serpent, or be stung by a scorpion or a

centipede, and thereby I may lose my life. But this

would be an obstacle for me. Or I may stumble and fall

to the ground, or the food eaten by me may not agree

– 187 –

with my health; or bile, phlegm and piercing body

gases may become disturbing, or men or ghosts may

attack me, and thus I may lose my life. But this would

be an obstacle for me.’ Then the monk has to consider

thus: ‘Are there still to be found in me unsubdued evil,

unwholesome things which, if I should die today or

tonight, might lead me to suffering?’ Now, if he understands

that this is the case, he should use his utmost

resolution, energy, effort, endeavour, steadfastness,

attentiveness and clear-mindedness in order to overcome

these evil, unwholesome things” (A. VIII, 74).

In Vis.M. VIII it is said: ‘He who wishes to develop

this meditation, should retreat to solitude, and whilst

living secluded he should thus wisely reflect: ‘Death

will come to me! The vital energy will be cut off!’ Or:

‘Death! Death!’ To him, namely, who does not wisely

reflect, sorrow may arise by thinking on the death of a

beloved person, just as to a mother whilst thinking on

the death of her beloved child. Again, by reflecting on

the death of a disliked person, joy may arise, just as to

enemies whilst thinking on the death of their enemies.

Through thinking on the death of an indifferent person,

however, no emotion will arise, just as to a man whose

work consists in cremating the dead at the sight of a

dead body. And by reflecting on one’s own death fright

may arise… just as at the sight of a murderer with

drawn sword one becomes filled with horror. Thus,

whenever seeing here or there slain or other dead

beings, one should reflect on the death of such deceased

persons who once lived in happiness, and one

should rouse one’s attentiveness, emotion and knowledge

and consider thus: ‘Death will come, etc.’…. Only

– 188 –

in him who considers in this way, will the hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.) be repressed; and through the idea of

death attention becomes steadfast, and the exercise

reaches neighbourhood-concentration (upacàrasamàdhi).”

According to Vis.M. VIII, one may also reflect on

death in the following various ways: one may think of it

as a murderer with a drawn sword standing in front of

oneself; or one may bear in mind that all happiness

ends in death; or that even the mightiest beings on this

earth are subject to death; or that we must share this

body with all those innumerable worms and other tiny

beings residing therein; or that life is something dependent

on in-and-out breathing, and bound up with it; or

that life continues only as long as the elements, food,

breath, etc. are properly performing their functions; or

that nobody knows when, where, and under what circumstances,

death will take place, and what kind of fate

we have to expect after death; or, that life is very short

and limited. As it is said: ‘Short, indeed, is this life of

men, limited, fleeting, full or woe and torment; it is just

like a dewdrop that vanishes as soon as the sun rises;

like a water-bubble; like a furrow drawn in the water;

like a torrent dragging everything along and never

standing still; like cattle for slaughter that every

moment look death in the face” (A. VII, 74).

“The monk devoted to this recollection of death is

at all time indefatigable, gains the idea of disgust with

regard to all forms of existence, gives up delight in life,

detests evil, does not hoard up things, is free from

stinginess with regard to the necessities of life, the idea

– 189 –

of impermanence (anicca) becomes familiar to him;

and through pursuing it, the idea of misery (dukkha)

and of impersonality (anattà) become present to

him…. Free from fear and bewilderment will he pass

away at death; and should he not yet realize the Deathless

State in his life-time, he will at the dissolution of

the body attain to a happy course of existence”

(Vis.M. VIII).

See Buddhist Reflections on Death, by V. F. Gunaratna

(Wheel 102/103). Buddhism and Death, by M.Q.C. Walshe

(Wheel. 260).

marvel: s. pàñihàriya.

mastery (regarding the absorptions): s. vasã. – 8 stages

of: abhibhàyatana (q.v.).

material food: kabalinkàràhàra (q.v.).

matter (corporeality): s. khandha, råpa-kalàpa.

matured one, the: gotrabhå (q.v.).

maturity-knowledge: gotrabhå-¤àõa; s. visuddhi (VII).

meaning: evident, and to be inferred:

s. neyyatthadhamma.

meat-eating. Just as the karmical, i.e. moral, quality of any action

is determined by the quality of volition (cetanà)

underlying it, and independently of this volition nothing

whatever can be called karmically wholesome or

unwholesome (kusala, akusala), just so it is with the

merely external act of meat-eating, this being as such

purely non-moral, i.e. karmically neutral (avyàkata).

– 190 –

“In 3 circumstances meat-eating is to be rejected: if

one has seen, or heard, or suspects (that the animal has

been slaughtered expressly for one’s own sake)”

(M. 55). For if in such a case one should partake of the

meat, one would as it were approve the murder of animals,

and thus encourage the animal-murderer in his

murderous deeds. Besides, that the Buddha never objected,

in ordinary circumstances, to meat-eating may

be clearly understood from many passages of the Suttas

(e.g. A. V. 44; VIII, 12; M. 55, etc.), as also from the

Vinaya, where it is related that the Buddha firmly

rejected Devadatta’s proposal to forbid meat-eating to

the monks; further from the fact that 10 kinds of meat

were (for merely external reasons) forbidden to the

monks, namely from elephants, tigers, serpents, etc.

See Amagandha Sutta (Sn.). Early Buddhism and the

Taking of Life, by I. B. Horner (Wheel 104).

meditation: s. bhàvanà, jhàna, samàdhi.

mental action: mano-kamma; s. karma.

mental advertence: mano-dvàràvajjana; s. àvajjana.

mental formation: sankhàra (q.v.). s. Tab. II.

mental function: citta-sankhàra; s. sankhàra (2).

mental image: s. nimitta, kasiõa, samàdhi.

mental obduracy: ceto-khila (q.v.).

merit, the 4 streams of: pu¤¤a-dhàrà (q.v.). – For

transference of merit, s. patti-dàna.

– 191 –

meritorious action: s. pu¤¤a, pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu.

message, the 9-fold: of the Buddhasàsana, s. sàsana.

messengers, the 3 divine: s. deva-dåta.

method, the right: ¤àya, is a name for the 8-fold path

(s. magga)

mettà: ‘loving-kindness’, is one of the 4 sublime abodes

(brahma-vihàra, q.v.).

micchà-diññhi, ºsankappa, ºvàca etc.: s. foll.

micchà-magga, Aññhangika: the ‘eightfold wrong path’,

i.e. (1) wrong view (micchà-diññhi), (2) wrong thought

(micchà-sankappa), (3) wrong speech (micchà-vàcà),

(4) wrong bodily action (micchà-kammanta),

(5) wrong livelihood (micchà-àjãva), (6) wrong effort

(micchà-vàyàma), (7) wrong mindfulness (micchà-sati),

(8) wrong concentration (micchà-samàdhi). Just as the

Eightfold Right Path (sammà-magga), so also here the

8 links are included in the group of mental formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha; s. khandha). The links 2, 6, 7, 8,

are inseparably bound up with every karmicallyunwholesome

state of consciousness. Often are also

present 3, 4, or 5, sometimes link 1.

micchatta: ‘wrongnesses’ = prec.

middha: ‘sloth’: Combined with thãna, ‘torpor’, it forms

one of the 5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.). Both may be

associated with greedy consciousness (s. Tab. III and

I, 23, 25, 27, 29).

middle path: majjhima-pañipadà (q.v.).

– 192 –

mind: mano (q.v.); cf. nàma.

mind and corporeality: nàma-råpa (q.v.).

mind-base: manàyatana; s. àyatana.

mind-consciousness-element: mano-vi¤¤àõadhàtu

(q.v.).

mind-element: mano-dhàtu (q.v.).

mindfulness: sati (q.v.); s. satipaññhàna. – Right m.:

s. sacca, magga.

mind-object: dhamma; s. àyatana. – Contemplation of

the, s. satipaññhàna (4).

mind-training, ‘higher’: adhicitta-sikkhà, s. sikkhà.

miracle: s. pàñihàriya.

mirth (in the Arahat): s. hasituppàda-citta.

misapprehension: s. paràmàsa.

misery, contemplation of: dukkhànupassanà;

s. ti-lakkhaõa.

moha: ‘delusion’, is one of the 3 unwholesome roots

(måla, q.v.). The best known synonym is avijjà (q.v.).

moha-carita the ‘deluded-natured’; s. carita.

momentaneity (of existence): s. maraõa.

monkhood, the fruits of; sàma¤¤a-phala (q.v.).

monks’ community: Sangha (q.v.); further s. pabbajjà,

progress of the disciple.

– 193 –

morality: sãla (q.v.). – Contemplation on,

s. anussati (4).

morality-training, higher: adhisãla-sikkhà; s. sikkhà.

moral rules, the 5, 8 or 10: s. sikkhàpada.

muccitu-kamyatà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in the

desire for deliverance’; s. visuddhi (VI. 6).

mudità: ‘altruistic (or sympathetic) joy’, is one of the

4 sublime abodes (brahma-vihàra, q.v.).

mudutà (råpa, kàya, citta): ‘elasticity’ (of corporeality,

mental factors, consciousness); s. khandha (I) and

Tab. II.

måla: ‘roots’, also called hetu (q.v.; s. paccaya, 1), are

those conditions which through their presence determine

the actual moral quality of a volitional state

(cetanà), and the consciousness and mental factors

associated therewith, in other words, the quality of

karma (q.v.). There are 6 such roots, 3 karmically

wholesome and 3 unwholesome roots, viz.,: greed,

hate, delusion (lobha, dosa, moha), and greedlessness,

hatelessness, undeludedness (alobha, adosa, amoha).

In A. III, 68 it is said that greed arises through unwise

reflection on an attractive object, hate through

unwise reflection on a repulsive object. Thus, greed

(lobha or ràga) comprises all degrees of ‘attractedness’

towards an object from the faintest trace of a longing

thought up to grossest egoism, whilst hatred (dosa)

comprises all degrees of ‘repulsion’ from the faintest

trace of ill-humor up to the highest pitch of hate and

wrath.

– 194 –

The 3 wholesome (kusala) roots, greedlessness,

etc., though expressed in negative terms, nevertheless

possess a distinctly positive character, just as is also

often the case with negative terms in other languages,

for example, the negative term ‘immorality’, which has

a decidedly positive character.

Thus, greedlessness (alobha) is a name for unselfishness,

liberality, etc., hatelessness (adosa) for kindness

or goodwill (mettà), undeludedness (amoha) for

wisdom (pa¤¤à).

“The perception of impurity is to be developed in

order to overcome greed (lust); loving-kindness in

order to overcome hate; wisdom in order to overcome

delusion” (A. VI, 107).

“Killing, stealing, unlawful sexual intercourse, lying,

tale-bearing, harsh language, frivolous talk, covetousness,

ill-will and wrong views (s. kammapatha),

these things are due either to greed, or hate, or

delusion” (A. X, 174).

“Enraptured with lust (greed), enraged with hate,

blinded by delusion, overwhelmed, with mind ensnared,

man aims at his own ruin, at others’ ruin, at the ruin

of both, and he experiences mental pain and grief. And

he follows evil ways in deeds, words and thought….

And he really knows neither his own welfare, nor the

welfare of others, nor the welfare of both. These things

make him blind and ignorant, hinder his knowledge,

are painful, and do not lead him to peace.”

The presence or absence of the 3 unwholesome

roots forms part of the mind contemplation in the Satipaññhàna

Sutta (M. 10). They are also used for the

classification of unwholesome consciousness (s. Tab. I).

– 195 –

See The Roots of Good and Evil, by Nyanaponika Thera

(Wheel 251/253).

multiformity-perceptions: nànatta-sa¤¤à;

s. jhàna (5).

mundane: lokiya (q.v.).

mutability: Contemplation of: viparinàmanupassanà:

see vipassanà.

– 196 –

N

nàma: (lit. ‘name’): ‘mind’, mentality. This term is

generally used as a collective name for the 4 mental

groups (aråpino khandha), viz. feeling (vedanà), perception

(sa¤¤à), mental formations (sankhàra) and

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa). Within the 4th link (nàmaråpa)

in the formula of the pañiccasamuppàda (q.v.),

however, it applies only to karma-resultant (vipàka)

feeling and perception and a few karma-resultant

mental functions inseparable from any consciousness.

As it is said (M. 9; D. 15; S. XII, 2): “Feeling (vedanà),

perception (sa¤¤à), volition (cetanà), impression

(phassa), mental advertence (manasikàra): this,

O brother, is called mind (nàma).” With the addition of

2 more mental factors, namely, mental vitality (jãvita)

and concentration (samàdhi), here ‘stationary phase of

mind’ (cittaññhiti), these 7 factors are said in the Abhidhammattha

Sangaha to be the inseparable mental

factors in any state of consciousness.

For the complete list of all the 50 mental formations

of the sankhàra-kkhandha (not including feeling

and perception), s. Tab. II.

nàma-kàya: the ‘mind-group’ (as distinguished from

råpa-kàya, the corporeality-group) comprises the

4 immaterial groups of existence (aråpino khandhà;

s. khandha). This twofold grouping, frequent in Com.,

occurs first in D. 15, also in Pts.M. (I, 183); nàma-kàya

alone is mentioned in Sn. 1074.

– 197 –

nàma-råpa (lit. ‘name and form’): ‘mind-and-body’,

mentality and corporeality. It is the 4th link in the

dependent origination (s. pañiccasamuppàda 3, 4)

where it is conditioned by consciousness, and on its part

is the condition of the sixfold sense-base. In two texts

(D. 14, 15), which contain variations of the dependent

origination, the mutual conditioning of consciousness

and mind-and-body is described (see also S. XII, 67),

and the latter is said to be a condition of sense-impression

(phassa); so also in Sn. 872.

The third of the seven purifications (s. visuddhi),

the purification of views, is defined in Vis.M. XVIII as

the “correct seeing of mind-and-body,” and various

methods for the discernment of mind-and-body by way

of insight-meditation (vipassanà, q.v.) are given there.

In this context, ‘mind’ (nàma) comprises all four mental

groups, including consciousness. – See nàma.

In five-group-existence (pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava, q.v.),

mind-and body are inseparable and interdependent;

and this has been illustrated by comparing them with

two sheaves of reeds propped against each other: when

one falls the other will fall, too; and with a blind man

with stout legs, carrying on his shoulders a lame cripple

with keen eye-sight: only by mutual assistance can they

move about efficiently (s. Vis.M. XVIII, 32ff). On their

mutual dependence, see also pañicca-samuppàda (3).

With regard to the impersonality and dependent

nature of mind and corporeality it is said:

“Sound is not a thing that dwells inside the conchshell

and comes out from time to time, but due to both,

– 198 –

the conch-shell and the man that blows it, sound comes

to arise: Just so, due to the presence of vitality, heat

and consciousness, this body may execute the acts of

going, standing, sitting and lying down, and the 5 senseorgans

and the mind may perform their various

functions” (D. 23).

“Just as a wooden puppet though unsubstantial,

lifeless and inactive may by means of pulling strings be

made to move about, stand up, and appear full of life

and activity; just so are mind and body, as such, something

empty, lifeless and inactive; but by means of their

mutual working together, this mental and bodily combination

may move about, stand up, and appear full of

life and activity.”

¤àõa: ‘knowledge, comprehension, intelligence,

insight’, is a synonym for pa¤¤à (q.v.); see also

vipassanà.

¤àõadassana-visuddhi: ‘purification of knowledge

and vision’, is the last of the 7 purifications and a name

for path-knowledge (magga¤àõa), i.e. the penetrating

realization of the path of Stream-winning, Once-returning,

Non-returning or Arahatship. Vis.M. XXII furnishes

a detailed explanation of it (s. visuddhi, VII).

In A. IV, 41 ¤àõadassana apparently means the

divine eye (dibbacakkhu, s. abhi¤¤à), being produced

through concentrating the mind on light.

nànatta-sa¤¤à: The ‘variety (or multiformity) –

perceptions are explained under jhàna (q.v.).

– 199 –

¤àõa-vipphàrà iddhi: the ‘power of penetrating

knowledge’, is one of the magical powers (iddhi, q.v.).

¤àta-pari¤¤à: ‘full understanding (or comprehension)

of the known’, is one of the 3 kinds of full understanding

(pari¤¤à q.v.).

natthika-diññhi: ‘nihilistic view’ (a doctrine that all

values are baseless, that nothing is knowable or can be

communicated, and that life itself is meaningless),

s. diññhi.

natthi-paccaya: ‘absence-condition’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

natural morality: pakati-sãla (q.v.).

navanga-buddha (or satthu)- sàsana: s. sàsana.

nava-sattàvàsa: s. sattàvàsa.

naya-vipassanà: s. kalàpa (2).

¤àya: ‘right method’, is often used as a name for the

Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga), e.g. in the Satipaññhàna

Sutta (M. 10, D. 22).

neighbourhood-concentration: upacàrasamàdhi

(q.v.).

nekkhamma: ‘freedom from sensual lust’, renunciation.

Though apparently from nir + √ kram, ‘to go

forth (into the homeless state of a monk)’, this term is

in the Pàli texts nevertheless used as if it were derived

from kàma, lust, and always as an antonym to kàma. It

is one of the perfections (s. pàramã). N. sankappa,

– 200 –

thought free from lust, or thought of renunciation, is

one of the 3 kinds of right thought (sammà-sankappa),

the 2nd link of the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga, 2),

its antonym being kàmasankappa, lustful thought.

nesajjikanga: one of the 13 dhutanga (q.v.).

neutral, karmically: avyàkata (q.v.); n. feelings,

s. vedanà.

n’eva-sa¤¤à-n’àsa¤¤àyatana: The ‘sphere of neitherperception-

nor-non-perception’, is the name for the

fourth absorption of the immaterial sphere

(aråpàvacara), a semi-conscious state, which is surpassed

only by the state of complete suspense of consciousness,

called ‘attainment of extinction’ (nirodhasamàpatti,

q.v.). See jhàna (8).

n’eva-sekha-n’àsekha: ‘neither in training nor beyond

training’, i.e. neither learner nor master. Thus is called

the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), for he is neither pursuing

the 3-fold training (sikkhà q.v.) in morality, mental

culture and wisdom, on the level of the first 3 paths

of sanctity, nor has he completed his training as an

Arahat. See sekha. – (App.).

neyya: ‘requiring guidance’, is said of a person “who

through advice and questioning, through wise consideration,

and through frequenting noble-minded friends,

having intercourse with them, associating with them,

gradually comes to penetrate the truth” (Pug. 162).

Cf. ugghañita¤¤å.

neyyattha-dhamma: A ‘teaching the meaning of which

is implicit, or has to be inferred’ as contrasted with a

– 201 –

‘teaching with an explicit or evident meaning’ (nãtatthadhamma).

In A. I, 60 (PTS) it is said: “Whoso declares a

sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit

meaning (and conversely), such a one makes a false

statement with regard to the Blessed One.” – See

paramattha.

Nibbàna, (Sanskrit nirvàna): lit. ‘extinction’ (nir + √ va,

to cease blowing, to become extinguished); according

to the commentaries, ‘freedom from desire’ (nir + vana).

Nibbàna constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all

Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute extinction of that lifeaffirming

will manifested as greed, hate and delusion,

and convulsively clinging to existence; and therewith

also the ultimate and absolute deliverance from all future

rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering

and misery. Cf. Parinibbàna.

“Extinction of greed, extinction of hate, extinction

of delusion: this is called Nibbàna” (S. XXXVIII. 1).

The 2 aspects of Nibbàna are:

(1) The full extinction of defilements (kilesa-parinibbàna),

also called sa-upàdi-sesa-nibbàna (s. It. 41),

i.e. ‘Nibbàna with the groups of existence still remaining’

(s. upàdi). This takes place at the attainment of

Arahatship, or perfect holiness (s. ariya-puggala).

(2) The full extinction of the groups of existence

(khandha-parinibbàna), also called an-upàdi-sesanibbàna

(s. It. 41, A. IV, 118), i.e. ‘Nibbàna without the

groups remaining’, in other words, the coming to rest,

or rather the ‘no-more-continuing’ of this physico-

202 –

mental process of existence. This takes place at the

death of the Arahat. – (App.: Nibbàna).

Sometimes both aspects take place at one and the

same moment, i.e. at the death of the Arahat;

s. sama-sãsã.

“This, O monks, truly is the peace, this is the highest,

namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of

every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of craving,

detachment, extinction, Nibbàna” (A. III, 32).

“Enraptured with lust (ràga), enraged with anger

(dosa), blinded by delusion (moha), overwhelmed,

with mind ensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at the

ruin of others, at the ruin of both, and he experiences

mental pain and grief. But if lust, anger and delusion

are given up, man aims neither at his own ruin, nor at

the ruin of others, nor at the ruin of both, and he

experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus is Nibbàna

visible in this life, immediate, inviting, attractive, and

comprehensible to the wise” (A. III, 55).

“Just as a rock of one solid mass remains unshaken

by the wind, even so neither visible forms, nor sounds,

nor odours, nor tastes, nor bodily impressions, neither

the desired nor the undesired, can cause such a one to

waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is deliverance”

(A. VI, 55).

“Verily, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated,

Unformed. If there were not this Unborn, Unoriginated,

Uncreated, Unformed, escape from the world of

– 203 –

the born, the originated, the created, the formed,

would not be possible” (Ud. VIII, 3).

One cannot too often and too emphatically stress

the fact that not only for the actual realization of the

goal of Nibbàna, but also for a theoretical understanding

of it, it is an indispensable preliminary condition to

grasp fully the truth of anattà (q.v.), the egolessness

and insubstantiality of all forms of existence. Without

such an understanding, one will necessarily misconceive

Nibbàna – according to one’s either materialistic

or metaphysical leanings – either as annihilation of an

ego, or as an eternal state of existence into which an

ego or self enters or with which it merges. Hence it is

said:

“Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found;

The deed is, but no doer of the deed is there;

Nibbàna is, but not the man that enters it;

The path is, but no traveler on it is seen.”

(Vis.M. XVI)

Literature: For texts on Nibbàna, see Path, 36ff. – See

Vis.M. XVI. 64ff. – Anattà and Nibbàna, by Nyanaponika

Thera (Wheel 11); The Buddhist Doctrine of Nibbàna, by

Ven. P. Vajiranana & F. Story (Wheel 165/166).

nibbatti: ‘arising’, ‘rebirth’, is a synonym for

pañisandhi (q.v.).

nibbedha-bhàgiya-sãla (-samàdhi, -pa¤¤à): ‘morality

(concentration, wisdom) connected with penetration’;

s. hàna-bhàgiya-sãla.

– 204 –

nibbidànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘contemplation of aversion’,

is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight; s. vipassanà (4),

samatha-vipassanà (2), visuddhi (VI, 5).

nicca-sa¤¤à (-citta, –diññhi): perception (or consciousness,

or view) of permanency, is one of the 4 perversions

(vipallàsa, q.v.).

nihilistic view: natthika-diññhi; s. diññhi.

nãla-kasiõa: ‘blue-kasina exercise’ s. kasiõa.

nimitta: mark, sign; image; target, object; cause, condition.

These meanings are used in, and adapted to,

many contexts of which only the doctrinal ones are

mentioned here.

1. ‘Mental (reflex-) image’, obtained in meditation.

In full clarity, it will appear in the mind by successful

practice of certain concentration-exercises and will then

appear as vividly as if seen by the eye. The object perceived

at the very beginning of concentration is called

the preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta). The still

unsteady and unclear image, which arises when the

mind has reached a weak degree of concentration, is

called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta). An entirely

clear and immovable image arising at a higher degree

of concentration is the counter-image (pañibhàganimitta).

As soon as this image arises, the stage of

neighbourhood (or access) concentration (upacàrasamàdhi)

is reached. For further details, s. kasiõa,

samàdhi.

2. ‘Sign of (previous) kamma’ (kamma-nimitta) and

‘sign of (the future) destiny’ (gati-nimitta); these arise

– 205 –

as mental objects of the last karmic consciousness

before death (maraõàsanna-kamma; s. karma, III, 3).

Usages (1) and (2) are commentarial (s. App.). In

sutta usage, the term occurs, e.g. as:

3. ‘Outward appearance’: of one who has sensecontrol

it is said- that “he does not seize upon the

general appearance’ of an object (na nimittaggàhã;

M. 38, D. 2; expl. VisM. I, 54f; see sãla).

4. ‘Object’: the six objects, i.e. visual, etc. (råpanimitta;

S. XXII, 3). Also, when in explanation of

animitta-cetovimutti, signless deliverance of mind

(s. cetovimutti, vimokkha), it is said, ‘sabba-nimittànaü

amanasikàrà’, it refers to the 6 sense-objects (Com. to

M. 43), and has therefore to be rendered “by paying no

attention to any object (or object-ideas).” – A pleasant

or beautiful object (subha-nimitta, q.v.) is a condition

to the arising of the hindrance of sense-desire; a

‘repellent object’ (pañigha-nimitta) for the hindrance of

ill-will; contemplation on the impurity of an object

(asubha-nimitta; s. asubha) is an antidote to sensedesire.

5. In Pts.M. II, in a repetitive series of terms, nimitta

appears together with uppàdo (origin of existence),

pavattam (continuity of existence), and may then be

rendered by ‘condition of existence’ (s. Path, 194f.).

nimmàna-rati: the name of a class of heavenly beings

of the sensuous sphere; s. deva.

nine abodes of beings: s. sattàvàsa.

– 206 –

ninefold dispensation: s. sàsana.

nippapa¤ca: s. papa¤ca.

nipphanna-råpa: ‘produced corporeality’, is identical

with råpa-råpa, ‘corporeality proper’, i.e. material or

actual corporeality, as contrasted with ‘unproduced

corporeality’ (anipphanna-råpa), consisting of mere

qualities or modes of corporeality, e.g. impermanence,

etc., which are also enumerated among the 28 phenomena

of the corporeality group. See khandha,

Summary I; Vis.M. XIV, 73.

niraya: lit. ‘the downward-path’, the nether or infernal

world, usually translated by ‘hell’, is one of the 4 lower

courses of existence (apàya, q.v.). The Buddhists are

well aware that on account of the universal sway of

impermanence a life in hell, just as in heaven, cannot

last eternally, but will after exhaustion of the karma

which has caused the respective form of rebirth, necessarily

be followed again by a new death and a new rebirth,

according to the stored-up karma.

nirodha: ‘extinction’; s. nirodha-samàpatti, anupubbanirodha.

nirodhànupassanà: ‘contemplation of extinction’, is

one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassanà q.v.). See

ànàpànasati (15).

nirodha-samàpatti: ‘attainment of extinction’

(S. XIV, 11), also called sa¤¤à-vedayita-nirodha,

‘extinction of feeling and perception’, is the temporary

suspension of all consciousness and mental activity,

following immediately upon the semi-conscious state

– 207 –

called ‘sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception’

(s. jhàna, 8). The absolutely necessary pre-conditions

to its attainment are said to be perfect mastery of

all the 8 absorptions (jhàna), as well as the previous

attainment of Anàgàmi or Arahatship (s. ariya-puggala).

According to Vis.M. XXIII, the entering into this

state takes place in the following way: by means of

mental tranquillity (samatha) and insight (vipassanà)

one has to pass through all the 8 absorptions one after

the other up to the sphere of neither-perception-nornon-

perception and then one has to bring this state to

an end. If, namely, according to the Vis.M., the disciple

(Anàgàmi or Arahat) passes through the absorption

merely by means of tranquillity, i.e. concentration, he

will only attain the sphere of neither-perception-nornon-

perception, and then come to a standstill; if, on the

other hand, he proceeds only with insight, he will reach

the fruition (phala) of Anàgàmi or Arahatship. He, however,

who by means of both faculties has risen from

absorption to absorption and, having made the necessary

preparations, brings the sphere of neither-perception-

nor-non-perception to an end, such a one reaches

the state of extinction. Whilst the disciple is passing

through the 8 absorptions, he each time emerges from

the absorption attained, and regards with his insight all

the mental phenomena constituting that special absorption,

as impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Then

he again enters the next higher absorption, and thus,

after each absorption practising insight, he at last

reaches the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception,

and thereafter the full extinction. This state, according

to the Com., may last for 7 days or even longer.

– 208 –

Immediately at the rising from this state, however, there

arises in the Anàgàmi the fruition of Anàgàmiship

(anàgàmi-phala), in the Arahat the fruition of Arahatship

(arahatta-phala).

With regard to the difference existing between the

monk abiding in this state of extinction on the one

hand, and a dead person on the other hand, M. 43 says:

“In him who is dead, and whose life has come to an

end, the bodily (in-and-outbreathing), verbal (thoughtconception

and discursive thinking), and mental

functions (s. sankhàra, 2) have become suspended and

come to a standstill, life is exhausted, the vital heat

extinguished, the faculties are destroyed. Also in the

monk who has reached ‘extinction of perception and

feeling’ (sa¤¤à-vedayita-nirodha), the bodily, verbal

and mental functions have been suspended and come

to a standstill, but life is not exhausted, the vital heat

not extinguished, and the faculties are not destroyed.”

For details, see Vis.M. XXIII; for texts s. Path 206.

nirutti-pañisambhidà: the ‘analytical knowledge of

language’, is one of the 4 pañisambhidà (q.v.).

nirvàõa: (Sanskrit=) Nibbàna (q.v.).

nissaraõa-pahàna: ‘overcoming by escape’, is one of

the 5 kinds of overcoming (pahàna q.v.).

nissaya: ‘foundation’. The 2 wrong foundations of

morality are craving (taõhà-nissaya) and views (diññhinissaya).

Hence there are two wrong bases of morality:

morality based on craving (taõhà-nissita-sãla) and

morality based on views (diññhi-nissita-sãla). (App.)

– 209 –

“ ‘Based on craving’ is that kind of morality which

has come about by the desire for a happy existence,

e.g.: ‘O that by this morality I might become a godlike

or heavenly being!’ (A. IX, 172). ‘Based on views’ is that

morality which has been induced by the view that

through the observation of certain moral rules purification

may be attained” (Vis.M. I).

nissaya-paccaya: ‘support’, base, foundation, is one of

the 24 conditions (s. paccaya, 8).

nãtattha-dhamma: A ‘doctrine with evident meaning’,

contrasted with a ‘doctrine with a meaning to be inferred’

(neyyattha-dhamma, q.v.). See also paramattha.

nãvaraõa: ‘hindrances’, are 5 qualities which are obstacles

to the mind and blind our mental vision. In the

presence of them we cannot reach neighbourhoodconcentration

(upacàra-samàdhi) and full concentration

(appanà-samàdhi), and are unable to discern

clearly the truth. They are:

1. sensuous desire (kàmacchanda),

2. ill-will (vyàpàda),

3. sloth and torpor (thãna-middha),

4. restlessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca),

& 5. skeptical doubt (vicikicchà; q.v.).

In the beautiful similes in A. V, 193, sensuous desire

is compared with water mixed with manifold colours,

ill-will with boiling water, sloth and torpor with water

covered by moss, restlessness and scruples with agitated

water whipped by the wind, skeptical doubt with

turbid and muddy water. Just as in such water one cannot

perceive one’s own reflection, so in the presence of

– 210 –

these 5 mental hindrances, one cannot clearly discern

one’s own benefit, nor that of others, nor that of both.

Regarding the temporary suspension of the 5 hindrances

on entering the first absorption, the stereotype

sutta text (e g. A. IX, 40) runs as follows:

“He has cast away sensuous desire; he dwells with a

heart free from sensuous desire; from desire he

cleanses his heart.

“He has cast away ill-will; he dwells with a heart

free from ill-will, cherishing love and compassion toward

all living beings, he cleanses his heart from illwill.

“He has cast away sloth and torpor; he dwells free

from sloth and torpor; loving the light, with watchful

mind, with clear consciousness, he cleanses his mind

from sloth and torpor.

“He has cast away restlessness and scruples;

dwelling with mind undisturbed, with heart full of

peace, he cleanses his mind from restlessness and

scruples.

“He has cast away skeptical doubt; dwelling free

from doubt, full of confidence in the good, he cleanses

his heart from doubt.

“He has put aside these 5 hindrances, and come to

know these paralysing defilements of the mind. And far

from sensual impressions, far from unwholesome

things, he enters into the first absorption, etc.”

The overcoming of these 5 hindrances by the

absorptions is, as already pointed out, a merely temporary

suspension, called ‘overcoming through repression’

(vikkhambhana-pahàna). They disappear forever on

entering the 4 supermundane paths (s. ariyapuggala),

– 211 –

i.e. skeptical doubt on reaching Sotàpanship; sensuous

desire, ill-will and mental worry on reaching Anàgàmiship;

sloth, torpor and restlessness on reaching Arahatship.

For their origination and their overcoming,

s. A. I, 2; VI, 21; S. XLVI, 51.

See The Five Mental Hindrances, by Nyanaponika Thera

(Wheel 26).

niyàma: the ‘fixedness of law’ regarding all things;

cf. tathatà. – Pa¤ca-niyàma is a commentarial term,

signifying the ‘fivefold lawfulness’ or ‘natural order’ that

governs: (1) temperature, seasons and other physical

events (utu-niyàma); (2) the plant life (bãja-n.);

(3) karma (kamma-n.); (4) the mind (citta-n.), e.g. the

lawful sequence of the functions of consciousness

(s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca) in the process of cognition;

(5) certain events connected with the Dhamma

(dhamma-n.), e.g. the typical events occurring in the

lives of the Buddhas. (App.).

niyata-micchàdiññhi: ‘wrong views with fixed destiny’,

are the views of uncausedness of existence (ahetukadiññhi),

of the inefficacy of action (akiriya-diññhi), and

nihilism (natthika-diññhi). For details, s. diññhi; and

M. 60, Com. (Wheel 98/99). – (App.)

niyata-puggala: a ‘person with a fixed destiny’, may be

either one who has committed one of the 5 ‘heinous

deeds with immediate result’ (ànantarika-kamma, q.v.),

or one who follows ‘wrong views with fixed destiny’

(niyata-micchà-diññhi, q.v.), or one who has reached

one of the 4 stages of holiness (s. ariya-puggala). About

– 212 –

the latter cf. the frequent passage: “Those disciples in

whom the 3 fetters (of personality-belief, sceptical

doubt and attachment to mere rules and ritual;

s. saüyojana) have vanished, they all have entered the

stream, have forever escaped the states of woe; fixed is

their destiny (niyata), assured their final enlightenment.”

noble abodes: s. vihàra.

noble family, Passing from n.f. to n.f.: kolankola;

s. sotàpa¤¤à.

noble persons: ariya-puggala (q.v.).

noble power: ariya iddhi; s. iddhi.

noble truths, the 4: ariya-sacca; s. sacca. – The 2-fold

knowledge of the n.t.; s. sacca-¤àõa.

noble usages, the 4: ariya-vaüsa (q.v.).

non-disappearance: avigata-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

non-violence: s. avihiüsà.

not-self: s. anattà.

no-upàdà-råpa: ‘underived corporeality’, designates

the 4 primary elements (mahàbhåta or dhàtu), as

distinguished from the ‘derived corporeality’ (upàdàråpa),

such as the sensitive organs, etc. Cf. khandha, I.

nutriment: s. ojà, àhàra. – àhàra is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) – n.- produced

corporeality; s. samuññhàna.

– 213 –

O

obduracies, the 5 mental: ceto-khila (q.v.).

obhàsa: ‘effulgence of light’, aura, appearing at times

during deep insight (vipassanà), may become a ‘defilement

of insight’ (vipassanåpakkilesa); cf. visuddhi, V.

object: àrammaõa (q.v.); as condition s. paccaya (2).

obstacles, the 10 o. of meditation: palibodha (q.v.); for

the 5 mental obstacles, or hindrances, s. nãvaraõa.

odàta-kasiõa: ‘white-kasina-exercise’; s. kasiõa.

ogha: ‘floods’, is a name for the 4 cankers (àsava, q.v.).

ojà: ‘nutriment’ (synonym of àhàra, q.v.), is one of

those 8 minimal constituent parts, or qualities, of all

corporeality, to wit: the solid, liquid, heat, motion;

colour, odour, taste and nutriment. This is the ‘octad

with nutriment as the eighth (factor)’ (ojatthamakakalàpa),

also called the ‘pure eightfold unit’ (suddhatthaka-

kalàpa), being the most primitive material combination.

For further details, s. råpa-kalàpa.

okkanti: ‘conception’, lit. ‘descent’, designates the

appearance of the embryo in the mother’s womb,

i.e. the beginning of the birth process (jàti, q.v.).

“Through the concurrence of 3 circumstances arises the

embryo. When father and mother have united,… and

the mother has her time, and the ‘genius’ (metaphorically

for the karma energy) is ready; under these

3 circumstances does the embryo appear” (M. 38).

– 214 –

old age: jarà (q.v.), is one of the 3 divine messengers

(s. devadåta).

olfactory organ: s. àyatana.

omàna: ‘inferiority-conceit’; s. màna.

once-eater, the practice of the: s. dhutanga.

one-group existence: eka-vokàra-bhava (q.v.).

one-pointedness of mind (citt’ekaggatà): a name for

mental concentration (samàdhi, q.v.).

opapàtika: lit. ‘accidental’ (from upapàta, accident; not

from upapatti, as PTS Dict. has); ‘spontaneously born’,

i.e. born without the instrumentality of parents. This

applies to all heavenly and infernal beings. “After the

disappearing of the 5 lower fetters (saüyojana, q.v.), he

(the Anàgàmi) appears in a spiritual world (opapàtika)….”

open air, practice of living in the: s. dhutanga.

opposite: ‘overcoming by the opposite,’ s. pahàna.

orambhàgiya-saüyojana: the ‘lower fetters’, i.e. the

first 5 fetters that bind to lower existence; s. saüyojana.

origination, dependent: pañiccasamuppàda (q.v.).

origination of corporeality: s. samutthàna.

ottappa: ‘moral dread’; s. hiri-ottappa.

overcoming, the 5 kinds of: s. pahàna. – Full understanding

consisting in o.; s. pari¤¤à – the effort to

overcome, s. padhàna. – Overcoming doubt, the purification

by; s. visuddhi, IV.

– 215 –

P

pabbajjà: lit. ‘the going forth’, or more fully stated, ‘the

going forth from home to the homeless life’ of a monk

(agàrasmà anagàriyaü pabbajjà), consists in severing

all family and social ties to live the pure life of a monk,

in order to realize the goal of final deliverance pointed

out by the Enlightened One. Thus, p. has become the

name for admission as a sàmaõera, or novice, i.e. as a

candidate for the Order of Bhikkhus, or monks.

See Going Forth, by Sumana Samanera (Wheel 27/28) –

Ordination in Theravàda Buddhism (Wheel 56).

paccavekkhaõa-¤àõa: ‘retrospective knowledge’,

refers to the recollected mental image obtained in

concentration, or to any inner experience just passed,

as for instance, any absorption (jhàna q.v.), or any

supermundane path, or fruition of the path, etc.

(s. ariya-puggala). As it is said: “At the end of fruitional

consciousness, consciousness sinks into the subconscious

stream of existence (bhavanga-sota, q.v.). Then,

breaking off the stream of existence, mental advertence

(manodvàràvajjana) arises at the mind-door, for the

purpose of retrospecting the (just passed) pathmoment.

Now, as soon as this stage has passed,

7 moments of impulsive consciousness (javana-citta),

one after the other, flash up while retrospecting the

path. After they again have sunk into the subconscious

stream, there arise, for the purpose of retrospecting the

– 216 –

fruition of the path the moments of advertence and

impulsion, during whose arising the monk is retrospecting

the path, retrospecting the fruition, retrospecting

the abandoned defilements, retrospecting the still

remaining defilements, retrospecting Nibbàna as

object…. ‘This blessing have I attained’…. ‘This and that

defilement still remains in me’…. ‘This object have I

beheld in my mind’, etc.” (Vis.M. XXII).

paccavekkhaõa-suddhi: ‘purity of reflection’, is a

name for wise consideration in using the 4 requisites

allowed to the monk, i.e. robes, food, dwelling, and

medicine; s. sãla (4).

paccaya: ‘condition’, is something on which something

else, the so-called ‘conditioned thing’, is dependent,

and without which the latter cannot be. Manifold are

the ways in which one thing, or one occurrence, may be

the condition for some other thing, or occurrence. In

the Paññhàna, the last book of the Abhidhamma Piñaka

(comprising 6 large vols. in the Siamese edition), these

24 modes of conditionality are enumerated and explained,

and then applied to all conceivable mental

and physical phenomena and occurrences, and thus

their conditioned nature is demonstrated.

The first two volumes of the Paññhàna have been

translated into English by the Venerable U Nàrada

(Målapatthàna Sayadaw) of Burma, under the title

Conditional Relations (Published by the Pali Text

Society, London 1969, 1981). For a synopsis of this

work, see Guide VII.

– 217 –

The 24 modes of conditionality are:

1. Root condition : hetu paccaya

2. Object ” : àrammaõa “

3. Predominance ” : adhipati “

4. Priority ” : anantara “

5. Contiguity ” : samanantara “

6. Co-nascence ” : sahajàta “

7. Mutuality ” : a¤¤ama¤¤a “

8. Support ” : nissaya “

9. Decisive Support ” : upanissaya “

10. Pre-nascence ” : purejàta “

11. Post-nascence ” : pacchàjàta “

12. Repitition ” : àsevana “

13. Karma ” : kamma “

14. Karma-result ” : vipàka “

15. Nutriment ” : àhàra “

16. Faculty ” : indriya “

17. Jhàna ” : jhàna “

18. Path ” : magga “

19. Association ” : sampayutta “

20. Dissociation ” : vippayutta “

21. Presence ” : atthi “

22. Absence ” : natthi “

23. Disappearance ” : vigata “

24. Non- disappearance ” : avigata “

(1) Root-condition (hetu-paccaya) is that condition

that resembles the root of a tree. Just as a tree rests on

its root, and remains alive only as long as its root is not

destroyed, similarly all karmically wholesome and unwholesome

mental states are entirely dependent on the

simultaneity and presence of their respective roots,

– 218 –

i.e. of greed (lobha), hate (dosa), delusion (moha), or

greedlessness (alobha), hatelessness (adosa), undeludedness

(amoha). For the definition of these 6 roots,

s. måla.

“The roots are a condition by way of root for the

(mental) phenomena associated with a root, and for

the corporeal phenomena produced thereby (e.g. for

bodily expression)” (Paññh.).

(2) Object-condition (àrammaõa-paccaya) is called

something which, as object, forms the condition for

consciousness and mental phenomena. Thus, the physical

object of sight consisting in colour and light (‘lightwave’),

is the necessary condition and the sine qua non

for the arising of eye-consciousness (cakkhu-vi¤¤àõa),

etc.; sound (‘sound wave’) for ear-consciousness (sotàvi¤¤

àõa), etc.; further, any object arising in the mind is

the condition for mind-consciousness (mano-vi¤¤àõa).

The mind-object may be anything whatever, corporeal

or mental, past, present or future, real or imaginary.

(3) Predominance-condition (adhipati-paccaya) is

the term for 4 things, on the preponderance and predominance

of which are dependent the mental phenomena

associated with them, namely: concentrated

intention (chanda, q.v.), energy (viriya, q.v.), consciousness

(citta) and investigation (vãmamsà). In one and the

same state of consciousness, however, only one of these

4 phenomena can be predominant at a time. “Whenever

such phenomena as consciousness and mental

concomitants are arising by giving preponderance to

one of these 4 things, then this phenomenon is for the

– 219 –

other phenomena a condition by way of predominance”

(Paññh.). Cf. iddhi-pàda.

(4-5) Proximity and contiguity (or immediacy)

-condition (anantara and samanantara-paccaya) – both

being identical – refer to any state of consciousness and

mental phenomena associated with them, which are the

conditions for the immediately following stage in the

process of consciousness. For example, in the visual

process, eye-consciousness is for the immediately

following mind-element – performing the function of

receiving the visible object – a condition by way of

contiguity; and so is this mind-element for the next

following mind-consciousness element, performing the

function of investigating the object, etc. Cf. vi¤¤àõakicca.

(6) Co-nascence condition (sahajàta-paccaya),

i.e. condition by way of simultaneous arising, is a phenomenon

that for another one forms, a condition in such

a way that, simultaneously with its arising, also the

other thing must arise. Thus, for instance, in one and

the same moment each of the 4 mental groups (feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness) is for

the 3 other groups a condition by way of co-nascence

or co-arising; or again each of the 4 physical elements

(solid, liquid, heat, motion) is such a condition for the

other 3 elements. Only at the moment of conception in

the mother’s womb does corporeality (physical base of

mind) serve for the 4 mental groups as a condition by

way of conascence.

– 220 –

(7) Condition by way of mutuality (a¤¤àma¤¤apaccaya).

All the just mentioned associated and conascent

mental phenomena, as well as the 4 physical

elements, are, of course, at the same time also conditioned

by way of mutuality, “just like three sticks propped

up one by another.” The 4 mental groups are one

for another a condition by way of mutuality. So also

are the 4 elements, and also mentality and corporeality

at the moment of conception.

(8) Support-condition (nissaya-paccaya). This

condition refers either to a pre-nascent (s. 10) or

co-nascent (s. 6) phenomenon which is aiding other

phenomena in the manner of a foundation or base, just

as the trees have the earth as their foundation, or as the

oil-painting rests on the canvas. In this way, the 5 senseorgans

and the physical base of the mind are for the

corresponding 6 kinds of consciousness a prenascent,

i.e. previously arisen, condition by way of support.

Further all co-nascent (s. 6) phenomena are mutually

(s. 7) conditioned by each other by way of support.

(9) Decisive-support (or inducement) condition

(upanissaya-paccaya) is threefold, namely (a) by way

of object (àrammanåpanissaya-paccaya), (b) by way of

proximity (anantaråpanissaya), (c) natural decisive

support (pakatupanissaya). These conditions act as

strong inducement or cogent reason.

(a) Anything past, present or future, corporeal or

mental, real or imaginary, may, as object of our thinking,

become a decisive support, or strong inducement,

to moral, immoral or karmically neutral states of mind.

– 221 –

Evil things, by wrong thinking about them, become an

inducement to immoral life; by right thinking, an inducement

to moral life. But good things may be an

inducement not only to similarly good things, but also

to bad things, such as self-conceit, vanity, envy, etc.

(b) is identical with proximity condition (No. 4).

(c) Faith, virtue, etc., produced in one’s own mind,

or the influence of climate, food, etc., on one’s body

and mind, may act as natural and decisive supportconditions.

Faith may be a direct and natural inducement

to charity, virtue to mental training, etc.; greed to

theft, hate to murder; unsuitable food and climate to

ill-health; friends to spiritual progress or deterioration.

(10) Pre-nascence-condition (purejàta-paccaya)

refers to something previously arisen, which forms a

base for something arising later on. For example, the

5 physical sense-organs and the physical base of mind,

having already arisen at the time of birth, form the condition

for the consciousness arising later, and for the

mental phenomena associated therewith.

(11) Post-nascence-condition (pacchà-jàta-paccaya)

refers to consciousness and the phenomena therewith

associated, because they are – just as is the feeling of

hunger- a necessary condition for the preservation of

this already arisen body.

(12) Repetition-condition (àsevana-paccaya) refers

to the karmical consciousness, in which each time the

preceding impulsive moments (javana-citta, q.v.) are for

all the succeeding ones a condition by way of repetition

– 222 –

and frequency, just as in learning by heart, through

constant repetition, the later recitation becomes gradually

easier and easier.

(13) Karma-condition (kamma-paccaya). The prenatal

karma (i.e. karma-volitions, kamma-cetanà, in a

previous birth) is the generating condition (cause) of

the 5 sense-organs, the fivefold sense-consciousness,

and the other karma-produced mental and corporeal

phenomena in a later birth. – Karmical volition is also a

condition by way of karma for the co-nascent mental

phenomena associated therewith, but these phenomena

are in no way karma-results.

(14) Karma-result-condition (vipàka-paccaya). The

karma-resultant 5 kinds of sense-consciousness are a

condition by way of karma-result for the co-nascent

mental and corporeal phenomena.

(15) Nutriment-condition (àhàra-paccaya). For the

4 nutriments, s. àhàra.

(16) Faculty-condition (indriya-paccaya). This

condition applies to 20 faculties (indriya, q.v.), leaving

out No. 7 and 8 from the 22 faculties. Of these

20 faculties, the 5 physical sense-organs (1 – 5), in their

capacity as faculties, form a condition only for uncorporeal

phenomena (eye-consciousness etc.); physical

vitality (6) and all the remaining faculties, for the

co-nascent mental and corporeal phenomena.

(17) Jhàna-condition (jhàna-paccaya) is a name for

the 7 so-called jhàna-factors, as these form a condition

to the co-nascent mental and corporeal phenomena, to

– 223 –

wit: (1) thought-conception (vitakka), (2) discursive

thinking (vicàra), (3) interest (pãti), (4) joy (sukha),

(5) sadness (domanassa), (6) indifference (upekkhà),

(7) concentration (samàdhi). (For definition s. Pàli

terms.)

1, 2, 3, 4, 7 are found in 4 classes of greedy

consciousness (s. Tab. I. 22-25); 1, 2, 5, 7 in hateful

consciousness (ib. 30, 31); 1, 2, 6, 7 in the classes of

deluded consciousness (ib. 32, 33).

This condition does not only apply to jhàna alone,

but also to the general intensifying (‘absorbing’) impact

of these 7 factors.

(18) Path-condition (magga-paccaya) refers to the

12 path-factors, as these are for the karmically wholesome

and unwholesome mental phenomena associated

with them, a way of escape from this or that mental

constitution, namely: (1) knowledge (pa¤¤à = sammàdiññhi,

right understanding), (2) (right or wrong)

thought-conception (vitakka), (3) right speech

(sammà-vàcà), (4) right bodily action (sammàkammanta),

(5) right livelihood (sammà-àjãva),

(6) (right or wrong) energy (viriya), (7) (right or

wrong) mindfulness (sati), (8) (right or wrong)

concentration (samàdhi), (9) wrong views (micchàdiññhi),

(10) wrong speech (micchà-vàcà), (11) wrong

bodily action (micchà-kammanta), (12) wrong livelihood

(micchà-àjãva). Cf. magga.

(19) Association-condition (sampayutta-paccaya)

refers to the co-nascent (s. 6) and mutually (s. 7) conditioned

4 mental groups (khandha), “as they aid each

other by their being associated, by having a common

– 224 –

physical base, a common object, and by their arising

and disappearing simultaneously” (Paññh. Com.).

(20) Dissociation-condition (vippayutta-paccaya)

refers to such phenomena as aid other phenomena by

not having the same physical base (eye, etc.) and

objects. Thus corporeal phenomena are for mental

phenomena, and conversely, a condition by way of

dissociation, whether co-nascent or not.

(2l) Presence-condition (atthi-paccaya) refers to a

phenomenon – being pre-nascent or co-nascent – which

through its presence is a condition for other phenomena.

This condition applies to the conditions Nos. 6,

7, 8, 10, 11.

(22) Absence-condition (natthi-paccaya) refers to

consciousness, etc., which has just passed, and which

thus forms the necessary condition for the immediately

following stage of consciousness by giving it an

opportunity to arise. Cf. No. 4.

(23) Disappearance-condition (vigata-paccaya) is

identical with No. 22.

(24) Non-disappearance-condition (avigatapaccaya)

is identical with No. 21.

These 24 conditions should be known thoroughly

for a detailed understanding of that famous formula of

the dependent origination (pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.).

Cf. Fund. III, Guide p. 117 ff. (App.).

See The Significance of Dependent Origination, by

Nyanatiloka (Wheel 140).

– 225 –

paccaya-sannissita-sãla: ‘morality consisting in the

wise use of the monk’s requisites’; s. sãla (4).

pacceka-bodhi: ‘independent enlightenment’; s. the

foll. and bodhi.

pacceka-buddha: an ‘Independently Enlightened

One’; or Separately or Individually (=pacceka)

Enlightened One (renderings by ‘Silent’ or ‘Private

Buddha’ are not very apt). This is a term for an Arahat

(s. ariya-puggala) who has realized Nibbàna without

having heard the Buddha’s doctrine from others. He

comprehends the 4 Noble Truths individually

(pacceka), independent of any teacher, by his own

effort. He has, however, not the capacity to proclaim

the Teaching effectively to others, and therefore does

not become a ‘Teacher of Gods and Men’, a Perfect or

Universal Buddha (sammà-sambuddha). – Paccekabuddhas

are described as frugal of speech, cherishing

solitude. According to tradition, they do not arise while

the Teaching of a Perfect Buddha is known; but for

achieving their rank after many æons of effort, they

have to utter an aspiration before a Perfect Buddha.

Canonical references are few; Pug. 29 (defin.);

A. II, 56; in M. 116, names of many Paccekabuddhas

are given; in D. 16 they are said to be worthy of a thåpa

(dagoba); the Treasure-Store Sutta (Nidhikhandha

Sutta, Khp.) mentions pacceka-bodhi; the C. Nidd.

ascribes to individual Paccekabuddhas the verses of the

Rhinoceros Sutta (Khaggavisàõa Sutta, Sn.) – See

bodhi.

– 226 –

See The Paccekabuddha, by Ria Kloppenborg

(Wheel 305/307).

pacchàjàta-paccaya: ‘post-nascence-condition’, is one

of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

pàdaka-jjhàna: ‘foundation-forming absorption’, is an

absorption used as a foundation, or starting point, for

the higher spiritual powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.), or for insight

(vipassanà, q.v.), leading to the supermundane

paths (s. ariya-puggala). The foundation for the former

is the 4th absorption; for insight, however, any absorption

is suitable. For details, s. samatha-vipassanà. –

(App.).

pada-parama: ‘one for whom the words are the utmost

attainment’. “Whoever, though having learned

much, speaking much, knowing many things by heart,

and discoursing much, has not penetrated the truth,

such a man is called by that name” (Pug. 163).

padhàna: ‘effort.’ The 4 right efforts (sammapadhàna),

forming the 6th stage of the 8-fold Path

(i.e. sammà-vàyàma, s. magga) are: (1) the effort to

avoid (samvara-padhàna), (2) to overcome (pahànapadhàna),

(3) to develop (bhàvanà-padhàna), (4) to

maintain (anurakkhana-padhàna), i.e. (1) the effort to

avoid unwholesome (akusala) states, such as evil

thoughts, etc. (2) to overcome unwholesome states,

(3) to develop wholesome (kusala) states, such as the

7 elements of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.), (4) to

maintain the wholesome states.

– 227 –

“The monk rouses his will to avoid the arising of

evil, unwholesome things not yet arisen… to overcome

them… to develop wholesome things not yet arisen…

to maintain them, and not to let them disappear, but to

bring them to growth, to maturity and to the full perfection

of development. And he makes effort, stirs up

his energy, exerts his mind and strives” (A. IV, 13).

(1) “What now, O monks, is the effort to avoid?

Perceiving a form, or a sound, or an odour, or a taste,

or a bodily or mental impression, the monk neither

adheres to the whole nor to its parts. And he strives to

ward off that through which evil and unwholesome

things might arise, such as greed and sorrow, if he remained

with unguarded senses; and he watches over

his senses, restrains his senses. This is called the effort

to avoid.

(2) “What now is the effort to overcome? The

monk does not retain any thought of sensual lust, or

any other evil, unwholesome states that may have

arisen; he abandons them, dispels them, destroys them,

causes them to disappear. This is called the effort to

overcome.

(3) “What now is the effort to develop? The monk

develops the factors of enlightenment, bent on solitude,

on detachment, on extinction, and ending in

deliverance, namely: mindfulness (sati), investigation

of the law (dhamma-vicaya), energy (viriya), rapture

(pãti), tranquillity (passaddhi), concentration

(samàdhi), equanimity (upekkhà). This is called the

effort to develop.

– 228 –

(4) “What now is the effort to maintain? The monk

keeps firmly in his mind a favourable object of concentration,

such as the mental image of a skeleton, a corpse

infested by worms, a corpse blueblack in colour, a

festering corpse, a corpse riddled with holes, a corpse

swollen up. This is called the effort to maintain”

(A. IV, 14).

padhàniyanga: ‘elements of effort’, are the following

5 qualities: faith, health, sincerity, energy, and wisdom

(M. 85, 90; A. V. 53). See pàrisuddhi-padhàniyanga.

pàgu¤¤atà: ‘proficiency’, namely, of mental concomitants

(kàya-pàgu¤¤atà), and of consciousness (cittapàgu¤¤

atà), are 2 mental phenomena associated with

all wholesome consciousness. Cf. Tab. II.

pahàna: ‘overcoming’, abandoning. There are 5 kinds

of overcoming: (1) overcoming by repression

(vikkhambhana-pahàna), i.e. the temporary suspension

of the 5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.) during the absorptions,

(2) overcoming by the opposite (tadangapahàna),

(3) overcoming by destruction (samucchedapahàna),

(4) overcoming by tranquillization

(pañipassaddhi-pahàna), (5) overcoming by escape

(nissaraõa-pahàna).

(1) “Among these, ‘overcoming by repression’ is the

pushing back of adverse things, such as the 5 mental

hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.), etc., through this or that

mental concentration (samàdhi, q.v.), just as a pot

thrown into moss-clad water pushes the moss aside….

– 229 –

(2) “ ‘Overcoming by the opposite’ is the overcoming

by opposing this or that thing that is to be overcome,

by this or that factor of knowledge belonging to

insight (vipassanà q.v.), just as a lighted lamp dispels

the darkness of the night. In this way, the personalitybelief

(sakkàyadiññhi, s. diññhi) is overcome by determining

the mental and corporeal phenomena… the

view of uncausedness of existence by investigation into

the conditions… the idea of eternity by contemplation

of impermanency… the idea of happiness by contemplation

of misery….

(3) “If through the knowledge of the noble path

(s. ariyapuggala) the fetters and other evil things cannot

continue any longer, just like a tree destroyed by

lightning, then such an overcoming is called ‘overcoming

by destruction’ “ (Vis.M. XXII, 110f.).

(4) When, after the disappearing of the fetters at

the entrance into the paths, the fetters, from the moment

of fruition (phala) onwards, are forever extinct and

stilled, such overcoming is called the ‘overcoming by

tranquillization’.

(5) “The ‘overcoming by escape’ is identical with

the extinction and Nibbàna” (Pts.M. I. 27). (App.).

pahàna-pari¤¤à; s. pari¤¤à.

pain, feeling of: s. vedanà.

pakati-sãla: ‘natural or genuine morality’, is distinct

from those outward rules of conduct laid down for

either laymen or monks. Those later are the so-called

‘prescribed morality’ (pa¤¤àttisãla). Cf. sãla.

– 230 –

pakati-upanissaya: ‘direct inducement’; s. paccaya.

palibodha: ‘obstacles’, is the term for the following

things if they obstruct the monk in the strict practice of

a subject of meditation: a crowded monastery, travelling,

relatives, association with lay folk, gifts, pupils,

repairs in the monastery, sickness, study, magical

power. The latter, however, may become an obstacle

only in developing insight (vipassanà, q.v.). See

Vis.M. III, 29ff. – (App.)

paüsukålik’anga: the ‘vow to wear only robes made

from picked-up rags’, is one of the ascetic rules of

purification; s. dhutanga.

pànàtipàtà veramaõã: ‘abstaining from the killing of

living beings’, is the first of the 5 moral rules binding

upon all Buddhists; s. sikkhàpada.

pa¤cadvàràvajjana: ‘advertence to the 5-sense-doors’;

s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

pa¤ca-sãla: s. sikkhàpada.

pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava: ‘five-group existence’, is a name

for existence in the sensuous sphere (kàmàvacara), or

in the fine-material sphere (råpàvacara, s. avacara),

since all the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.) are

found there. In the immaterial sphere (aråpàvacara,

s. avacara), however, only the 4 mental groups are

found, and in the world of unconscious beings (asa¤¤àsatta,

q.v.) only the one corporeality group. Cf. ekavokàra-

bhava and catu-pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava; further

s. avacara. – (App.: vokàra).

– 231 –

pa¤hà-byàkaraõa: ‘answering questions’. “There are,

O monks, 4 ways of answering questions: there are

questions requiring a direct answer; questions requiring

an explanation; questions to be answered by counterquestions;

questions to be rejected (as wrongly put).”

See D. 33; A. III, 68; A. IV, 42.

pa¤¤à: ‘understanding, knowledge, wisdom, insight’,

comprises a very wide field. The specific Buddhist

knowledge or wisdom, however, as part of the Noble

Eightfold Path (magga, q.v.) to deliverance, is insight

(vipassanà, q.v.), i.e. that intuitive knowledge which

brings about the 4 stages of holiness and the realization

of Nibbàna (s. ariyapuggala), and which consists in the

penetration of the impermanency (anicca, q.v.), misery

(dukkha, s. sacca) and impersonality (anattà) of all

forms of existence. Further details, s. under tilakkhaõa.

With regard to the condition of its arising one

distinguishes 3 kinds of knowledge: knowledge based

on thinking (cintà-mayà-pa¤¤à), knowledge based on

learning (suta-mayà-pa¤¤à), knowledge based on

mental development (bhàvanà-mayà-pa¤¤à) (D. 33).

“ ‘Based on thinking’ is that knowledge which one

has acquired through one’s own thinking, without

having learnt it from others. ‘Based on learning’ is that

knowledge which one has heard from others and thus

acquired through learning. ‘Based on mental development’

is that knowledge which one has acquired

through mental development in this or that way, and

which has reached the stage of full concentration”

(appanà, q.v.) (Vis.M. XIV).

– 232 –

Wisdom is one of the 5 mental faculties (s. bala),

one of the 3 kinds of training (sikkhà, q.v.), and one of

the perfections (s. pàramã). For further details,

s. vipassanà, and the detailed exposition in Vis.M. XIV,

1-32.

pa¤¤atti-sãla: ‘prescribed morality’, is a name for the

disciplinary rules of the monk or layman prescribed by

the Buddha, as distinguished from natural or genuine

morality (pakati-sãla; s. sãla).

pa¤¤à-vimutti: ‘deliverance through wisdom’ (or

understanding’), signifies, according to Com. to

A.V, 142, the wisdom associated with the fruition of

holiness (arahatta-phala). In Pug. 31 and similarly in

M. 70, it is said: “A monk may not have reached in his

own person the 8 liberations (=jhàna, q.v.), but

through his wisdom the cankers have come to extinction

in him. Such a person is called wisdom-liberated”

(pa¤¤à-vimutta). – Com. to Pug.: “He may be one of

five persons: either a practiser of bare insight (sukkhavipassako,

q.v.), or one who has attained to Holiness

after rising from one of the absorptions.” See S. XII, 70.

The term is often linked with ceto-vimutti (q.v.),

‘deliverance of mind’.

papa¤ca: (Sanskrit prapa¤ca): In doctrinal usage, it

signifies the expansion, differentiation, ‘diffuseness’ or

‘manifoldness’ of the world; and it may also refer to the

‘phenomenal world’ in general, and to the mental

attitude of ‘worldliness’. In A. IV, 173, it is said: “As far

as the field of sixfold sense-impression extends, so far

reaches the world of diffuseness (or the phenomenal

– 233 –

world; papa¤cassa gati); as far as the world of diffuseness

extends, so far extends the field of sixfold senseimpression.

Through the complete fading away and

cessation of the field of sixfold sense-impression, there

comes about the cessation and the coming-to-rest of the

world of diffuseness (papa¤ca-nirodho papa¤cavupasamo).”

The opposite term nippapa¤ca is a name

for Nibbàna (S. LIII), in the sense of ‘freedom from

samsaric diffuseness’. – Dhp. 254: “Mankind delights in

the diffuseness of the world, the Perfect Ones are free

from such diffuseness” (papa¤càbhiratà pajà,

nippapa¤ca tathàgatà). – The 8th of the ‘thoughts of a

great man’ (mahà-purisa-vitakka; A. VIII, 30) has: “This

Dhamma is for one who delights in non-diffuseness (the

unworldly, Nibbàna); it is not for him who delights in

worldliness (papa¤ca).” – For the psychological sense

of ‘differentiation’, see M. 18 (Madhupiõóika Sutta):

“Whatever man conceives (vitakketi) that he differentiates

(papa¤ceti); and what he differentiates, by reason

thereof ideas and considerations of differentiation

(papa¤ca-sa¤¤à-sankhà) arise in him.” On this text and

the term papa¤ca, see Dr. Kurt Schmidt in German

Buddhist Writers (Wheel 74/75) p. 61ff. – See D. 21

(Sakka’s Quest; Wheel 10, p.

In the commentaries, we often find a threefold

classification taõhà-, diññhi-, màna-papa¤ca, which

probably means the world’s diffuseness created by

craving, false views and conceit. – See M. 123;

A. IV, 173; A. VI, 14, Sn. 530, 874, 916.

¥ànananda Bhikkhu, in Concept and Reality: An Essay on

Papa¤ca and Papa¤ca-sa¤¤à-sankhà (Kandy 1971, Buddhist

Publication Society), suggests that the term refers to man’s

– 234 –

“tendency towards proliferation in the realm of concepts”

and proposes a rendering by “conceptual proliferation,”

which appears convincing in psychological context, e.g. in

two of the texts quoted above, A. IV, 173 and M. 18. – The

threefold classification of papa¤ca, by way of craving, false

views and conceit, is explained by the author as three

aspects, or instances, of the foremost of delusive

conceptualisations, the ego-concept.

paràmàsa: ‘adherence’, attachment, ‘misapprehension’,

is according to Vis.M. XXII a name for wrong views; in

that sense it occurs in Dhs. 1174 ff. – See sãlabbataparàmàsa.

paramattha (-sacca, -vacana, -desanà): ‘truth (or term,

exposition) that is true in the highest (or ultimate)

sense’, as contrasted with the ‘conventional truth’

(vohàra-sacca), which is also called ‘commonly accepted

truth’ (sammuti-sacca; in Skr: saüvrti-satya). The

Buddha, in explaining his doctrine, sometimes used

conventional language and sometimes the philosophical

mode of expression which is in accordance with

undeluded insight into reality. In that ultimate sense,

existence is a mere process of physical and mental

phenomena within which, or beyond which, no real

ego-entity nor any abiding substance can ever be

found. Thus, whenever the suttas speak of man, woman

or person, or of the rebirth of a being, this must not be

taken as being valid in the ultimate sense, but as a mere

conventional mode of speech (vohàra-vacana).

It is one of the main characteristics of the Abhidhamma

Piñaka, in distinction from most of the Sutta

Piñaka, that it does not employ conventional language,

but deals only with ultimates, or realities in the highest

– 235 –

sense (paramattha-dhammà). But also in the Sutta

Piñaka there are many expositions in terms of ultimate

language (paramattha-desanà), namely, wherever these

texts deal with the groups (khandha), elements (dhàtu)

or sense-bases (àyatana), and their components; and

wherever the 3 characteristics (ti-lakkhana, q.v.) are

applied. The majority of Sutta texts, however, use the

conventional language, as appropriate in a practical or

ethical context, because it “would not be right to say

that ‘the groups’ (khandha) feel shame, etc.”

It should be noted, however, that also statements

of the Buddha couched in conventional language, are

called ‘truth’ (vohàra-sacca), being correct on their own

level, which does not contradict the fact that such statements

ultimately refer to impermanent and impersonal

processes.

The two truths – ultimate and conventional –

appear in that form only in the commentaries, but are

implied in a sutta-distinction of ‘explicit (or direct)

meaning’ (nãtattha, q.v.) and ‘implicit meaning (to be

inferred)’ (neyyattha). Further, the Buddha repeatedly

mentioned his reservations when using conventional

speech, e.g. in D. 9: “These are merely names, expressions,

turns of speech, designations in common use in

the world, which the Perfect One (Tathàgata) uses

without misapprehending them.” See also S. I. 25.

The term paramattha, in the sense here used,

occurs in the first para. of the Kathàvatthu, a work of

the Abhidhamma Piñaka (s. Guide, p. 62). (App:

vohàra).

The commentarial discussions on these truths

(Com. to D. 9 and M. 5) have not yet been translated in

– 236 –

full. On these see K N. Jayatilleke, Early Buddhist

Theory of Knowledge (London, 1963), pp. 361ff.

In Mahàyana, the Màdhyamika school has given a

prominent place to the teaching of the two truths.

paramã = pàramità: ‘perfection’. Ten qualities leading

to Buddhahood: (1) perfection in giving (or liberality;

dàna-pàramã), (2) morality (sãla-p.), (3) renunciation

(nekkhamma-p.), (4) wisdom (pa¤¤à-p.), (5) energy

(viriya-p.), (6) patience (or forbearance; khanti-p.),

(7) truthfulness (sacca-p.), (8) resolution

(adhiññhàna-p.), (9) loving-kindness (mettà-p.),

(10) equanimity (upekkhà-p.).

These qualities were developed and brought to

maturity by the Bodhisatta in his past existences, and

his way of practising them is illustrated in many of the

Birth Stories (Jàtaka), of which, however, only the verses

are regarded as canonical. Apart from the latter, the

10 pàramã are mentioned in only two other canonical

works which are probably apocryphal, the Buddhavaüsa

(in the Story of Sumedha) and the Cariyapiñaka.

A long and methodical exposition of the pàramã is given

in the concluding Miscellaneous Section

(pakiõõakakathà) of the Com. to Cariyapiñaka

In Vis.M. IX it is said that through developing the

4 sublime states (loving-kindness, compassion, altruistic

joy, equanimity; s. brahma-vihàra), one may reach

these 10 perfections, namely:

“As the Great Beings (mahà-satta; a synonym often

found in the Mahàyana scriptures for Bodhisatta (q.v.),

i.e. ‘Enlightenment Being or Being destined for Buddha-

237 –

hood) are concerned about the welfare of living beings,

not tolerating the suffering of beings, wishing long duration

to the higher states of happiness of beings, and

being impartial and just to all beings, therefore (1) they

give alms (dàna, q.v.) to all beings so that they may be

happy, without investigating whether they are worthy

or not. (2) By avoiding to do them any harm, they observe

morality (sãla q.v.). (3) In order to bring morality

to perfection, they train themselves in renunciation

(nekkhamma). (4) In order to understand clearly what

is beneficial and injurious to beings, they purify their

wisdom (pa¤¤à). (5) For the sake of the welfare and

happiness of others they constantly exert their energy

(viriya). (6) Though having become heroes through

utmost energy, they are nevertheless full of forbearance

(khanti) towards the manifold failings of beings.

(7) Once they have promised to give or do something,

they do not break their promise (‘truthfulness’; sacca).

(8) With unshakable resolution (adhiññhàna) they work

for the weal and welfare of beings. (9) With unshakable

kindness (mettà) they are helpful to all. (10) By

reason of their equanimity (upekkhà) they do not expect

anything in return” (Vis.M. IX. 24).

In the Mahàyana scriptures, where the pàramã

occupy a much more prominent place, a partly differing

list of six is given: liberality, morality, patience, energy,

meditation. and wisdom.

Literature: Ten Jataka Stories (illustrating the

10 pàramã), by I. B. Horner (London 1957, Luzac & Co.);

Buddhavamsa & Cariyapitaka. tr. by I. B. Horner (Minor

Anthologies III, Sacred Books of the Buddhists. PTS). –

Narada Thera, The Buddha & His Teachings, Ch. 41; Parami

– 238 –

(BPS) – The treatise on the perfections from the Com. to

Cariyapitaka has been translated in The Discourse on the

All-Embracing Net of Views (Brahmajala Sutta, with Com.).

tr. by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS).

paranimmita-vasavatti-deva: ‘heavenly beings with

power over the productions of others’, constitute a class

of heavenly beings in the sensuous sphere (kàma-loka).

Màra (q.v.) is said to be their ruler. Cf. loka, deva I.

parassa ceto-pariya-¤àõa: ‘penetration of the mind of

others’, is one of the higher powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.).

paricchinnàkàsa-kasiõa: ‘limited-space kasina’ =

space kasina; s. kasiõa. (App.).

parihàna-dhamma: ‘liable to decline’. “Now, someone

reaches the attainments (absorptions: jhàna, q.v.) of the

fine-material or immaterial sphere (s. avacara). But he

does not reach them according to his wish, and not

without trouble and exertion; and not according to his

wish with regard to place, object and duration, does he

enter them, or rise therefrom. Therefore it is well possible

that such a monk, through negligence, may lose

these attainments. Such a person is said to be liable to

decline” (Pug. 5).

parikamma: ‘preparatory-moment’: s. javana.

parikamma-nimitta: ‘preparatory image’; s. nimitta,

kasiõa.

parikamma-samàdhi: ‘preparatory concentration’,

is the initial and still undeveloped concentration of

mind; s. samàdhi.

– 239 –

parinibbàna: ‘full Nibbàna’, is a synonym for Nibbàna;

this term, therefore, does not refer exclusively to the

extinction of the 5 groups of existence at the death of

the Holy One, though often applied to it. Cf. nibbàna.

pari¤¤à: ‘full understanding’, full comprehension.

There are 3 kinds of mundane f.u. (lokiya-p.), namely:

full understanding of the known (¤àta-p.), f.u. as

investigating (tãraõa-p.), and f.u. as overcoming

(pahàna-p.) In Vis.M. XX, 3 it is said:

“Full understanding of the known is the knowledge

consisting in the discernment of the specific characteristics

of such and such phenomena, as: ‘Corporeality

has the characteristic of being oppressed; feeling has

the characteristic of being felt, etc.’

“Full understanding by investigating is that insightwisdom

(vipassanà-pa¤¤à; s. vipassanà), which has the

3 general characteristics (impermanence, suffering, notself)

as its objects, and which arises when attributing a

general characteristic to (physical and mental) phenomena,

as for instance: ‘Corporeality is impermanent,

feeling is impermanent, etc.’

“Full understanding by overcoming is that insightwisdom

which has the above mentioned general characteristics

as its objects, and arises after overcoming the

idea of permanence, etc.” – (App.).

pàrisuddhi-padhàniyanga: the 4 ‘elements of the

effort for purity’, are: effort for purity of morality (sãlaparisuddhi-

padhàniyanga), for purity of mind (citta), of

view (diññhi), of deliverance (vimutti). Cf. A. IV, 194. –

Another 9 factors are enumerated in D. 34, namely the

– 240 –

7 ‘stages of purification (s. visuddhi) and the effort for

purity of (higher) knowledge (vijjà-p.-p.) and of

deliverance (vimutti-p.-p.).

pàrisuddhi-sãla: ‘morality consisting in purity’, is

fourfold: restraint with regard to the monks’

Disciplinary Code, sense restraint, purity of livelihood,

morality with regard to the monks’ 4 requisites; for

details, s. sãla.

parittàbha and paritta-subha are 2 classes of heavenly

beings of the fine-material sphere; s. deva (II).

pariyatti: ‘learning the doctrine’, the ‘wording of the

doctrine’. In the ‘progress of the disciple’ (q.v.), 3 stages

may be distinguished: theory, practice, realization,

i.e. (1) learning the wording of the doctrine (pariyatti),

(2) practising it (pañipatti), (3) penetrating it

(pañivedha) and realising its goal. (App.).

pasàda-råpa: ‘sensitive corporeality’, is a name for the

5 physical sense-organs responding to sense-stimuli.

Cf. àyatana.

passaddhi-sambojjhanga: ‘tranquillity, as factor of

enlightenment’, consists in tranquillity of mental factors

(kàya-passaddhi) and tranquillity of consciousness

(citta-passaddhi). Cf. bojjhanga; further Tab. II.

patched-up robes, the practice of wearing: is one of

the ascetic rules of purification (dhutanga, q.v.).

path and not-path, the knowledge and vision regarding:

s. visuddhi (V).

– 241 –

pathavã-dhàtu: ‘earth-element’. or ‘solid element’. It is

cognizable through the sensations of pressure, touch,

cold, heat. pain, etc. – About the 4 elements. s. dhàtu,

khandha (I. A.).

pathavã-kasiõa: ‘earth-kasina’ (s. kasiõa).

path-condition: magga-paccaya, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

path-knowledge, the 4 kinds of: s. visuddhi (VII).

path-result (fruition): phala (q.v.).

pañibhàga-nimitta: s. nimitta, kasiõa, samàdhi.

pañibhàna-pañisambhidà: the ‘analytical knowledge

of ready wit’: s. pañisambhidà.

pañiccasamuppàda: ‘dependent origination’, is the

doctrine of the conditionality of all physical and

psychical phenomena, a doctrine which, together with

that of impersonality (anattà q.v.), forms the indispensable

condition for the real understanding and realization

of the teaching of the Buddha. It shows the conditionality

and dependent nature of that uninterrupted

flux of manifold physical and psychical phenomena of

existence conventionally called the ego, or man, or

animal, etc.

Whereas the doctrine of impersonality, or anattà,

proceeds analytically, by splitting existence up into the

ultimate constituent parts, into mere empty, unsubstantial

phenomena or elements, the doctrine of dependent

origination, on the other hand, proceeds synthetically,

by showing that all these phenomena are, in some way

– 242 –

or other, conditionally related with each other. In fact,

the entire Abhidhamma Piñaka, as a whole, treats really

of nothing but just these two doctrines: phenomenality

– implying impersonality and conditionality of all

existence. The former or analytical method is applied in

Dhammasangani, the first book of the Abhidhamma

Piñaka; the latter or synthetical method, in Paññhàna,

the last book of the Abhidhamma Piñaka. For a synopsis

of these two works, s. Guide I and VII.

Though this subject has been very frequently treated

by Western authors, by far most of them have completely

misunderstood the true meaning and purpose of

the doctrine of dependent origination, and even the

12 terms themselves have often been rendered

wrongly.

The formula of dependent origination runs as

follows:

1. Avijià-paccayà sankhàrà: “Through ignorance are

conditioned the sankhàras,” i.e. the rebirth-producing

volitions (cetanà), or ‘karma-formations’.

2. Sankhàra-paccayà vi¤¤àõaü: “Through the karmaformations

(in the past life) is conditioned consciousness

(in the present life).”

3. Vi¤¤àõa-paccayà nàma-råpaü: “Through consciousness

are conditioned the mental and physical phenomena

(nàma-råpa),” i.e. that which makes up our socalled

individual existence.

4. Nàma-råpa-paccayà saëàyatanaü: “Through the

mental and physical phenomena are conditioned the

6 bases,” i.e. the 5 physical sense-organs, and consciousness

as the sixth.

– 243 –

5. Saëàyatana-paccayà phasso: “Through the six bases

is conditioned the (sensorial mental) impression.”

6. Phassa-paccayà vedanà: “Through the impression is

conditioned feeling.”

7. Vedanà-paccayà taõhà: “Through feeling is conditioned

craving.”

8. Taõhà-paccayà upàdànam: “Through craving is conditioned

clinging.”

9. Upàdàna-paccayà bhavo: “Through clinging is conditioned

the process of becoming,” consisting in the

active and the passive life process, i.e. the rebirth-producing

karma-process (kamma-bhava) and, as its result,

the rebirth-process (upapatti-bhava).

10. Bhava-paccayà jàti: “Through the (rebirth-producing

karma-) process of becoming is conditioned rebirth.”

11. Jàti-paccayà jaràmaraõaü, etc.: “Through rebirth

are conditioned old age and death (sorrow, lamentation,

pain, grief and despair). Thus arises this whole

mass of suffering again in the future.”

The following diagram shows the relationship of

dependence between three successive lives:

Past

1 Ignorance (avijjà)

2 Karma-formations

(sankhàrà)

Karma-Process

(kammabhava)

5 causes: 1,2,8,9,10

– 244 –

3 Consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa)

4 Mind & Matter

(nàma-råpa)

5 Six Bases (àyatana)

6 Impression (phassa)

7 Feeling (vedanà)

Rebirth-Process

(upapattibhava)

5 results: 3-7

Present

8 Craving (taõhà)

9 Clinging (upàdàna)

10 Process of Becoming

(bhava)

Karma-Process

(kammabhava)

5 causes: 1,2,8,9,10

Future

11 Rebirth (jàti)

12 Old Age and Death

(jarà-maraõa)

Rebirth-Process

(upapattibhava)

5 results: 3-7

Before taking up the study of the following

exposition, it is suggested that the reader first goes

thoroughly through the article on the 24 conditions

(s. paccaya). For a thorough understanding of the

pañiccasamuppàda he should know the main modes of

conditioning, as decisive support, co-nascence, prenascence,

etc.

For a closer study of the subject should be consulted:

Vis.M. XVII; Fund. III; Guide (Ch. VII and

Appendix); Dependent Origination, by Piyadassi Thera

(Wheel 15); The Significance of Dependent Origination

(Wheel 140).

@

– 245 –

(1.) “Through ignorance are conditioned the

karma-formations” (avijjà-paccayà sankhàrà), i.e. all

wholesome and unwholesome actions (karma, q.v.) of

body, speech and mind, are conditioned through ignorance.

By ‘karma-formations’ are meant karmically

wholesome and unwholesome volitions (cetanà), or

volitional activities, in short karma (q.v., and Fund. II).

In view of the many misconceptions current in the

West, it is necessary to repeat here that karma (q.v.), as

a technical term, never signifies anything but moral or

immoral action, i.e. the above mentioned volitional

activities, or karma-formations, as either causing results

in the present life or being the causes of future destiny

and rebirth. Thus karma, as a philosophical term, never

means the result of action, as often wrongly conceived

by Western authors.

Now, in what way are the karma-formations conditioned

through ignorance? As concerns the unwholesome

karma-formations associated with greed, hate or

delusion (lobha, dosa, moha), these are always and in

all circumstances, conditioned through the simultaneous

ignorance inseparably associated therewith. Thus,

ignorance is for the unwholesome karma-formations a

condition by way of conascence (sahajàta-paccaya),

association (sampayutta-paccaya), presence (atthipaccaya),

etc. Ignorance further may be for them a

condition by way of decisive support or inducement

(upanissaya-paccaya), if, for instance, ignorance

coupled with greed induces a man to commit evil

deeds, such as killing, stealing, unlawful sexual intercourse,

etc. In these cases, therefore, ignorance is a

‘natural decisive support’ or ‘direct inducement’ (pakati–

246 –

upanissaya-paccaya). It also may become an indirect

inducement, by way of object (àrammaõåpanissayapaccaya)

of our thinking. This takes place, if, for

example, someone remembers a former state of

ignorance combined with sensual enjoyment, and in

doing so karmically unwholesome states spring up,

such as sensual desire, grief, etc.

For the wholesome (kusala) karma-formations,

ignorance can only be a condition by way of decisive

support (upanissaya), never by way of co-nascence

(sahajàta), etc., since wholesome consciousness at that

very moment, of course, cannot be associated with any

unwholesome phenomenon, such as ignorance. Ignorance

is a ‘natural decisive support’ or ‘direct inducement’

(pakatupanissaya), for example, if, induced by

ignorance and vanity, one exerts oneself to attain the

absorptions, and thus finally, through perseverance,

reaches these wholesome states of mind. Ignorance

may also be for wholesome karma-formations a

‘decisive support’ or ‘inducement by way of object’

(àrammaõåpanissaya), if, for example, one reflects on

ignorance as the root of all misery in the world, and

thus finally attains insight and entrance into one of the

4 supermundane paths of holiness.

For ignorance, s. avijjà; for karma-formations,

s. sankhàra.

@

(2.) “Through the karma-formations is conditioned

consciousness” (sankhàra-paccayà vi¤¤àõaü). This proposition

teaches that the wholesome and unwholesome

karma-formations are the causes of future rebirth in an

– 247 –

appropriate sphere (gati). The karma-formations of the

previous life condition the budding in a new mother’s

womb of a fresh psycho-physical aggregation of the

5 groups of existence (s. khandha), which here are

represented by consciousness (vi¤¤àõa). All such

karma-resultant (vipàka) consciousness, however, such

as eye-consciousness (seeing), etc., as well as all the

mental phenomena associated therewith (feeling, etc.),

are karmically neutral. It should be understood that

already from the very first moment of conception in the

mother’s womb, this karma resultant consciousness of

the embryonic being is functioning.

Against Dr. Paul Dahlke’s misconception of the

pañiccasamuppàda as “one single karmical moment of

personal experience,” and of the ‘simultaneity’ of all the

12 links of this formula, I should like to state here distinctly

that the interpretation of the p. given here as

comprising 3 successive lives not only agrees with all

the different schools of Buddhism and all the ancient

commentaries, but also is fully identical with the explanations

given already in the canonical suttas. Thus,

for example, it is said verbatim in Nidàna-Saüyutta

(S. XII, 51): “Once ignorance (1) and clinging (9) are

extinguished, neither karmically meritorious, nor

demeritorious, nor imperturbable karma-formations

(2=10) are produced, and thus no consciousness

(3=11) will spring up again in a new mother’s womb.”

And further: “For, if consciousness were not to appear

in the mother’s womb, would in that case mentality and

corporeality (4) arise?” Cf. above diagram.

The purpose of the Buddha in teaching the p. was

to show to suffering mankind how, depending on ignor-

248 –

ance and delusion, this present existence and suffering

has come about, and how through extinction of ignorance,

and of the craving and clinging conditioned thereby,

no more rebirth will follow, and thus the standstill

of the process of existence will have been realized and

therewith the extinction of all suffering.

@

(3.) “Through consciousness are conditioned corporeality

and mentality” (vi¤¤àõa-paccayà nàmaråpaü).

This proposition implies that without consciousness

there can be no mental and physical process

of existence. By mentality (nàma) is here to be understood

the karma-resultant (vipàka) mental phenomena,

such as feeling (vedanà), perception (sa¤¤à), volition

(cetanà: non-karmical volition is here meant), consciousness-

impression (phassa), advertence

(manasikàra) (M. 9; S. XII, 2). For the basic 7 mental

phenomena inseparably associated with every state of

consciousness, s. nàma. By corporeality (råpa) is meant

the 4 physical elements (s. dhàtu) and the corporeality

dependent thereon (s. khandha, I).

Mentality is always conditioned through consciousness;

i.e. consciousness (vi¤¤àõa) is for mentality

(nàma) a condition by way of conascence (sahajàta),

mutuality (a¤¤ama¤¤a), association (sampayutta), etc.,

since the 4 mental groups at all times form an inseparable

unit.

Consciousness (vi¤¤àõa) is for corporeality (råpa)

a condition by way of co-nascence only at the moment

of conception, thereafter a condition by way of post-

249 –

nascence (pacchàjàta-paccaya; paccaya 11) and nutriment

(àhàra), i.e. as a support. Just as the repeatedly

arising hunger is a condition and support for the prearisen

body, so is the consciousness arising afterwards a

condition and support for the maintenance of this prearisen

body.

@

(4.) “Through mentality and corporeality are

conditioned the 6 bases (nàma-råpa paccayà

saëàyatanaü). The 6 bases are a name for the

5 physical sense-organs and, as 6th, the mind-base

(manàyatana), i.e. consciousness.

Mentality (nàma; s. 3) is for the 5 physical bases

(àyatana), or sense-organs, a condition by way of postnascence.

Cf. end of 3.

Mentality (nàma), i.e. feeling, etc., is for the

6th base, or consciousness – as being always inseparably

associated therewith a condition by way of conascence,

etc.

Corporeality (råpa), here the 4 elements, are for

the 5 physical bases (àyatana), or sense-organs, a

condition by way of support (nissaya).

Corporeality (råpa), here the 5 physical senseorgans,

are for the 6th base (àyatana), i.e. consciousness,

a condition by way of support and pre-nascence

(purejàta-paccaya).

@

– 250 –

(5.) “Through the 6 bases is conditioned the

(sensorial and mental) impression” (saëàyatana-paccayà

phasso), for without the 5 physical bases, or senseorgans,

there can be no sense-impressions; and without

the 6th base, or consciousness, there can be no mental

impression.

Thus, the 5 physical bases, eye, etc., are for the

corresponding 5 sense-impressions (visual impression,

etc.) a condition by way of support (nissaya) and

pre-nascence (purejàta), whereas the 6th, the mindbase

(consciousness), is for the mental impression a

condition by way of co-nascence, association,

mutuality, etc.

@

(6.) “Through impression is conditioned feeling”

(phassa-paccayà vedanà), i.e. the sensorial and the

mental impressions are for the feeling associated

therewith a condition by way of co-nascence, association,

mutuality, etc.

@

(7.) “Through feeling is conditioned craving”

(vedanà-paccayà taõhà). Any (karma-resultant) feeling,

whether agreeable, disagreeable or neutral, bodily or

mental, past or expected, may become for craving a

condition of decisive support by way of object

(àrammaõåpanissaya). Even physically and mentally

painful feeling may, through the desire to be released

– 251 –

therefrom, become for craving a condition of decisive

support by way of object (àrammaõupanissaya).

@

(8.) “Through craving is conditioned clinging”

(taõhà-paccayà upàdànam). ‘Clinging’ is explained as an

intensified form of craving. It is of 4 kinds: (1) clinging

to sensuality, (2) to erroneous views, (3) to rules and

ritual, (4) to personality-belief. Sensuous craving is to

(1) a condition of natural decisive support

(pakatupanissaya). For (2-4), craving is a condition by

way of co-nascence, mutuality, root (hetu), etc. It also

may be a condition of natural decisive support. For

example, through craving for heavenly rebirth, etc.

people often may be induced to cling to certain rules

and rituals, with the hope of reaching thereby the

object of their desires.

@

(9.) “Through clinging is conditioned the process of

becoming” (upàdàna-paccayà bhavo), i.e. the wholesome

and unwholesome active karma-process of becoming

(kamma-bhava), as well as the karma-resultant

(vipàka) passive process, the so-called ‘rebirth-process’

(upapatti-bhava). The karma-process (kammabhava)

comprises the 5 karmical causes: ignorance, karmaformations,

craving, clinging, karma-process (s. 1, 2, 8,

9, 10, of the diagram); the rebirth-process (upapattibhava)

comprises the 5 karma-results (s. 3-7 of the

diagram).

– 252 –

The karma-process is here, correctly speaking, a

collective name for generative karmic volition (kammacetanà)

and all the mental phenomena associated

therewith, whilst the 2nd link (karma-formations)

designates only karmic volition (s. àyåhana). Both,

however, i.e. the 2nd and 10th proposition, practically

state one and the same thing, namely, that karma is the

cause of rebirth, as we shall see under 10.

Clinging (upàdàna) may be an inducement of decisive

support (upanissaya) to many kinds of wholesome

and unwholesome karma. Sensuous clinging

(kàmåpàdàna), i.e. clinging to sensuous objects, for

example, may be a direct inducement to murder, theft,

unlawful intercourse with the other sex, evil words and

thoughts, etc. Clinging to rules and ritual

(sãlabbatåpàdàna) may lead to self-complacency,

fanaticism, cruelty, etc. Clinging is also for the evil

karma associated therewith, a condition by way of

co-nascence, association, etc.

@

(10.) “Through the process of becoming is conditioned

rebirth” (bhava-paccayà jàti), i.e. through the

wholesome and unwholesome karma-process (kammabhava)

is conditioned the rebirth-process (upapattibhava).

The 2nd and 10th propositions, as already

pointed out, practically teach one and the same thing,

namely, that karma is the cause of rebirth; in other

words, that the karmical volition (cetanà) is the seed

out of which springs the new life, just as from the

mango-seed is generated the new mango-tree.

– 253 –

Hence, the 5 karmical causes (ignorance, etc.) of

the past birth are the condition for the karma-results of

the present birth; and the 5 karmical causes of the

present birth are the condition for the 5 karma-results

of the next birth (s. diagram). As it is said in Vis.M. XVII:

“ Five causes were there in the past,

Five fruits we find in present life;

Five causes do we now produce,

Five fruits we reap in future life.”

Now, just as in this process of continually changing

mental and bodily phenomena, nothing can be found

that would pass from one moment to the next moment,

so also there is no enduring entity, ego, or personality,

within this process of existence that would transmigrate

from one life to the next (s. nàma-råpa, anattà,

pañisandhi, khandha). “No being and no living soul

passed from the former life to this life, and yet this

present embryo could not have entered into existence

without the preceding causes” (Vis.M. XVII). “Many

things may serve to illustrate this fact, as for example

the echo, the light of a lamp, the impression of a seal,

or the image produced by a mirror” (ib.).

“Whosoever is in the dark with regard to the conditionally

arisen things, and does not understand that

karma originates from ignorance, etc., he thinks that it

must be his ego that knows or does not know, acts and

causes to act, and that arises at rebirth. Or he thinks

that the atoms, or a creator, with the help of this embryonic

process, must have formed this body, or that it

is the ego endowed with faculties that has impressions,

– 254 –

feels, desires, clings, continues and enters again into

existence in a new birth. Or he thinks that all beings

have been born through fate, or fortuitously”

(Vis.M. XVII).

Now, on hearing that Buddhism teaches that everything

whatever in the world is determined by conditions

some might come to the conclusion that Buddhism

teaches some sort of fatalism, and that man has no free

will, or that will is not free.

The problem ‘whether man has a free will’ does not

exist for, the Buddhist, since he knows that, apart from

these ever-changing mental and physical phenomena,

no such entity as ‘man’ can be found, and that ‘man’ is

merely a name not relating to any reality. And the

question, ‘whether will is free’, must be rejected for the

reason that ‘will’, or volition, is a mental phenomenon

flashing forth only for a moment, and that as such it

had not any existence at the preceding moment. For of

a thing which is not, or is not yet, one cannot, properly

speaking, ask whether it is free or unfree. The only

admissible question would be whether the arising of

‘will’ is independent of conditions, or whether it is

conditioned. But the same question would equally

apply also to all the other mental phenomena, as well

as to all physical phenomena, in other words: to everything

and every occurrence whatever. And the answer

would be: whether will arises, or whether feeling

arises, or whether any other mental or any physical

phenomenon arises, the arising of anything whatsoever

is dependent on conditions, and without conditions

nothing ever can arise or enter into existence.

– 255 –

According to Buddhism, everything mental or

physical happens in accordance with laws and conditions;

and if it were otherwise, chaos and blind chance

would reign. But such a thing is impossible and

contradicts all laws of thinking. Cf. Fund. III (end).

@

(11.) “Through rebirth are conditioned old age and

death” (jàtipaccayà jarà-maraõaü). Without birth there

can be no old age and death, no suffering and misery.

Thus rebirth is to old age and death, etc. a condition by

way of decisive support (upanissaya).

The Buddha has said (D. 15): “Profound, Ananda.

is this dependent origination, and profound does it

appear. It is through not understanding, not penetrating,

this law that this world resembles a tangled ball of

thread, a bird’s nest, a thicket of sedge or reed, and that

man does not escape from the lower states of existence,

from the course of woe and perdition, suffering from

the round of rebirth.” And further (M. 28): ‘Whoso

understands the dependent origination understands the

Dhamma; and whoso understands the Dhamma understands

the dependent origination.”

patience, or forbearance (khanti): one of the

10 perfections (pàramã, q.v.).

pañigha: – 1. In an ethical sense, it means: ‘repugnance’,

grudge, resentment, anger, and is a synonym of

vyàpàda, ‘ill-will’ (s. nãvaraõa) and dosa, ‘hate’

(s. måla). It is one of the proclivities (anusaya, q.v.).

– 256 –

2. ‘(Sense-) reaction’. Applied to five-sense cognition,

p. occurs in the following contexts:

(a) as pañigha-sa¤¤à, ‘perception of sense-reaction’,

said to be absent in the immaterial absorptions

(s. jhàna 5). Alternative renderings: resistance-perception,

reflex-perception;

(b) as pañigha-samphassa, ‘(mental) impression

caused by 5-fold sensorial reaction’ (D. 15); s. phassa;

(c) as sappañigha-råpa, ‘reacting corporeality’, and

appañigha, ‘not reacting’, which is an Abhidhammic

classification of corporeality, occurring in Dhs. 659,

1050. Sappañigha are called the physical sense-organs

as reacting (or responding) to sense stimuli; and also

the physical sense-objects as impinging (or making an

impact) on the sense-organs. All other corporeality is

appañigha, non-reacting and non-impinging. These

2 terms have been variously rendered as resistant and

not, responding and not, with and without impact.

pàñihàriya: ‘miracle’, marvel. Three marvels are

ascribed to the Buddha: the marvel of magic (iddhi-p.),

the marvel of mind-reading (àdesanà-p.) and the

marvel of instruction (anusàsanã-p.). In D. 11, the

Buddha says that he sees danger in the first two and

therefore abhors them. In A. III, 61, the ‘marvel of

instruction’ is called the one ‘more noble and sublime’.

For iddhi-pàñihàriya, see D. 25. See also yamakapàñihàriya.

pañikkåla-sa¤¤à: s. kàyagatà-sati.

pàtimokkha: ‘Disciplinary Code’, is the name of the

code of monk’s rules, which on all full-moon and new

– 257 –

moon days is recited before the assembled community

of fully ordained monks (bhikkhu).

See The Patimokkha, Romanized Pàli text and transl. by

¥ànamoli Thera (Bangkok 1966, Mahàmakut Buddhist

Bookshop).

pàtimokkha-saüvara-sãla: ‘morality consisting in

restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code’

(Pàtimokkha, s. prec.). For details, s. sãla.

pañinissaggànupassanà: ‘contemplation on

abandonment’, is one of the 18 kinds of insight

(vipassanà q.v.). Further cf. the 16th exercise of

ànàpàna-sati (q.v.).

pañipadà: 1. ‘Road’, ‘path’; for instance in

dukkhanirodha-gàminã-pañipadà, ‘the road leading to

the extinction of suffering’ (= 4th Noble Truth);

majjhima-pañipadà, ‘the Middle Way’.

2. ‘Progress’ (see also the foll. article). There are

4 modes of progress to deliverance: (1) painful

progress with slow comprehension (dukkhà pañipadà

dandhàbhi¤¤à), (2) painful progress with quick

comprehension, (3) pleasant progress with slow

comprehension, (4) pleasant progress with quick

comprehension. In A. IV, 162 it is said:

(1) “Some person possesses by nature excessive

greed, excessive hate, excessive delusion, and thereby

he often feels pain and sorrow; and also the 5 mental

faculties, as faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration

and wisdom (s. indriya 15-19) are dull in him; and by

reason thereof he reaches only slowly the immediacy

(ànantariya, q.v.) to the cessation of all cankers.

– 258 –

(2) “Some person possesses by nature excessive

greed, etc., but the 5 mental faculties are sharp in him

and by reason thereof he reaches quickly the

immediacy to the cessation of all cankers….

(3) “Some person possesses by nature no excessive

greed, etc., but the 5 mental faculties are dull in him,

and by reason thereof he reaches slowly the immediacy

to the cessation of all cankers….

(4) ‘Some person possesses by nature no excessive

greed, etc., and the mental faculties are sharp in him,

and by reason thereof he reaches quickly the

immediacy to the cessation of all cankers….

See A. IV, 162, 163, 166-169; Dhs. 176ff;

Atthasàlini Tr. I, 243; 11, 291, 317.

pañipadà-¤àõadassana-visuddhi: ‘purification by

knowledge and vision of the path-progress’ forms the

6th stage of purification (visuddhi, q.v.).

pañipannaka: ‘path-attainer’, is he who had reached

one of the 4 supermundane paths of holiness (s. ariyapuggala).

– (App.)

pañipatti: practice, or ‘pursuance’ of the teaching, as

distinguished from the mere theoretical knowledge of

its wording (pariyatti, q.v.).

pañipassaddhi-pahàna: ‘overcoming (of

defilements) by tranquillization’ (s. pahàna).

pañisambhidà: ‘analytical knowledge’ or ‘discrimination’,

is of 4 kinds: analytical knowledge of the true

meaning (attha-pañisambhidà), of the law (dhamma–

259 –

pañisambhidà), of language (nirutti-pañisambhidà), of

ready wit (pañibhàna-pañisambhidà).

As an alternative rendering of the fourth term

(pañibhàna), Bhikkhu ¥àõamoli proposes: perspicuity

(in expression and knowledge).

1. The analytical knowledge of the meaning

(attha-p.) is the knowledge with regard to the sense.

2. The analytical knowledge of the law

(dhamma-p.) is the knowledge with regard to the law.

3. The analytical knowledge of language

(nirutti-p.) is the knowledge of the language with

regard to those former 2 things.

4. The analytical knowledge of ready-wit

(patibhàna-p.) is the knowledge about the (former 3)

kinds of knowledge” (Vibh. XV).

“(1) attha (Sanskrit artha, √ ar, to reach; result,

meaning, purpose, true substance) designates, in short,

the fruit (phala) of a cause (hetu); for since the fruit of

a cause results from adhering to the cause, and is

reached and effected thereby, therefore it is called

result (attha). In particular, however, 5 things are

considered as attha, namely: everything dependent on

conditions, Nibbàna, the meaning of words, karmaresult,

and functional consciousness. When anyone

reflects on that meaning any knowledge of his, falling

within the category concerned with meaning (or

result), is the ‘analytical knowledge’ of meaning.

“(2) dhamma (Sanskrit dharma, √ dhar, to bear;

bearer, condition, law, phenomenon, thing) is, in short,

a name for condition (paccaya)…. In particular, how-

260 –

ever, 5 things are considered as dhamma, namely:

every cause (hetu) producing a result, the noble path,

the spoken word, the karmically wholesome, the karmically

unwholesome. When anyone reflects on that

law, any knowledge of his, falling within the category

concerned with law (or cause), is the ‘analytical knowledge’

of the law.

In Vibh. it is further said: ‘The knowledge of suffering

is the ‘analytical knowledge’ of the true meaning

(attha-pañisambhidà), the knowledge of its origin is the

‘analytical knowledge’ of the law (dhammapañisambhidà).

The knowledge of the cause is the

‘analytical knowledge’ of the law (dhammapañisambhidà),

the knowledge of the result of the cause

is the ‘analytical knowledge’ of the true meaning (atthapañisambhidà)….

That the monk knows the law, the

sunas etc. this is called the ‘analytical knowledge’ of the

law (dhamma-pañisambhidà); if however, he understands

the meaning of this or that speech… it is called

the ‘analytical knowledge’ of the true meaning (atthapañisambhidà).’

(3) “ ‘The knowledge of the language concerning

those things’ means: the language corresponding to

reality, and the unfailing mode of expression concerning

the true meaning and the law.

(4) “ ‘Knowledge about the kinds of knowledges’ is

that knowledge which has all knowledges as object and

considers them. Or, the analytical knowledge of ready

wit (patibhàna-pañisambhidà) means the knowledge of

the above mentioned 3 kinds of knowledge, in all their

details, with their objects, functions, etc.” (Vis.M. XIV).

– 261 –

On the 7 qualities leading to the attainment of the

4 ‘analytical knowledge’, s. A. VII, 37 – See Vis.M. XIV,

21ff; Vibh. XV; Pts.M. Pañisambhidà Kathà.

pañisandhi: lit. ‘reunion, relinking’, i.e. rebirth, is one

of the 14 functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõakicca,

q.v.). It is a karma-resultant type of consciousness

and arises at the moment of conception i.e. with the

forming of new life in the mother’s womb. Immediately

afterwards it sinks into the subconscious stream of

existence (bhavangasota, q.v.), and conditioned thereby

ever and ever again corresponding states of subconsciousness

arise. Thus it is really rebirth-consciousness

that determines the latent character of a person.

“Neither has this (rebirth-) consciousness transmigrated

from the previous existence to this present existence,

nor did it arise without such conditions, as karma,

karma-formations, propensity, object, etc. That this consciousness

has not come from the previous existence to

this present existence, yet that it has come into existence

by means of conditions included in the previous

existence, such as karma (q.v.), etc., this fact may be

illustrated by various things, such as the echo, the light

of a lamp, the impression of a seal, or the image produced

by a mirror. For just as the resounding of the

echo is conditioned by a sound, etc., and nowhere a

transmigration of sound has taken place, just so it is

with this consciousness. Further it is said: ‘In this continuous

process, no sameness and no otherness can be

found.’ For if there were full identity (between the different

stages), then also milk never could turn into

curd. And if there were a complete otherness, then curd

– 262 –

could never come from milk…. If in a continuity of existence

any karma-result takes place, then this karmaresult

neither belongs to any other being, nor does it

come from any other (kamma), because absolute sameness

and otherness are excluded here” (Vis, XVII 164ff).

In Mil. it is said:

“Now, Venerable Nàgasena, the one who is reborn,

is he the same as the one who has died, or is he

another?”

“Neither the same, nor another” (na ca so na ca

a¤¤o).

“Give me an example.”

“What do you think, O King: are you now, as a

grown-up person, the same that you had been as a

little, young and tender babe? “

“No, Venerable Sir. Another person was the little,

young and tender babe, but quite a different person am

I now as a grown-up man.”…

“…Is perhaps in the first watch of the night one

lamp burning, another one in the middle watch, and

again another one in the last watch?”

“No, Venerable Sir. The light during the whole

night depends on one and the same lamp.’’

“Just so, O King, is the chain of phenomena linked

together. One phenomenon arises, another vanishes,

yet all are linked together, one after the other, without

interruption. In this way one reaches the final state of

consciousness neither as the same person. nor as

another person.’’

According to the nature of their rebirth consciousness,

beings divide into the following 3 groups:

– 263 –

1. ahetu-pañisandhika: a ‘being reborn without rootconditions’,

is a being whose consciousness at the moment

of rebirth was not accompanied by any of the

3 noble root-conditions, viz. greedlessness, hatelessness,

undeludedness (s. måla), i.e. selflessness, kindness,

intelligence. Such beings are found in the 4 lower

worlds (apàya, q.v.), in which case the function of rebirth

is exercised by the class of consciousness listed in

Tab. I as No. 56. But if such beings are born in the sensuous

sphere as humans, they will be crippled, blind,

deaf, mentally deficient, etc. (Rebirth-consciousness =

Tab. I, No. 41)

2. dvihetu (or duhetu)-pañisandhika: a ‘being

reborn with only 2 (noble) root-conditions’,

i.e. greedlessness and hatelessness. (Rebirthconsciousness

= Tab. I, Nos. 44, 45, 48 or 49.)

3. tihetu-pañisandhika: a ‘being reborn with

3 (noble) root-conditions’. Such a being can be found

only among men. (Rebirth-consciousness = Tab. 1,

Nos. 42, 43, 46, or 47) and higher heavenly beings.

On these 3 types of rebirth, See Atthasàlini Tr. 11,

354 – 379. (App.: pañisandhika).

In the suttas, the terms for rebirth are chiefly

punabbhava (q.v.), ‘renewed existence’, and

abhinibbatti ‘arising’; or both combined as

punabbhavàbhinibbatti. – (App.: pañisandhi).

Literature: Vis.M. XVII, 133f, 164f, 189f, 289f;

Vis.M. XIX, 22f. – Karma and Rebirth, by Nyanatiloka Thera

(Wheel 9). – The Case for Rebirth, by Francis Story

(Wheel 12/13). – Survival and Karma in Buddhist

Perspective, by K. N. Jayatilleke (Wheel 141/143). –

Rebirth Explained, by V. F. Gunaratna (Wheel 167/169).

– 264 –

pañisankhàna-bala and bhàvanà-bala: ‘power of

reflection’, and ‘power of mental development’. About

these 2 powers it is said in A. II, 10:

“What, O monks, is the power of reflection? If,

O monks, someone thinks thus: ‘Bad conduct in deeds,

words and thoughts verily bears bad fruits both in this

life, as well as in the next life’, and in consequence of

this consideration, he abandons bad conduct in deeds,

words and thoughts, follows good conduct, and keeps

his heart pure, this, O monks, is the power of reflection.

“What, O monks, is the power of mental

development? If, O monks, a monk develops the factors

of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.), bent on solitude, on

detachment, on extinction, and ending in deliverance,

namely: mindfulness, investigating of the law, energy,

rapture, tranquillity, concentration, and equanimity,

this, O monks, is the power of mental development.”

pañisankhànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting in

reflective contemplation”; is one of the 9 knowledges

constituting the ‘purification by knowledge and vision

of the path-progress’ (pañipadà-¤àõadassanavisuddhi;

s. visuddhi VI), and one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(mahàvipassanà; s. vipassanà).

pañivedha: ‘penetration’, signifies the realization of the

truth of the Dhamma, as distinguished from the mere

acquisition of its wording (pariyatti), or the practice

(pañipatti) of it, in other words, realization as distinguished

from theory and practice. Cf. pariyatti.

patta-piõóik’anga: the ‘exercise of the bowl-eater’, is

one of the 13 ascetic purification-exercises

– 265 –

(dhutanga, q.v.), consisting in the vow of using only the

alms-bowl for eating, and the rejection of any other

vessel.

patti-dàna: lit. ‘giving of the acquired’, i.e. ‘transference

of merit.’ Though in the older texts very seldom mentioned

(e.g. A. VII, 50), it is, however, a widespread

custom in all Buddhist countries. It is presumed that

moral merit, especially that acquired through giving

alms, can be transferred to others, apparently for the

reason that one’s own good deeds may become to

others, especially to departed relatives and friends

reborn in the ghost realm, an inducement to a happy

and morally wholesome state of mind. Transference of

merit is advocated (though without mentioning the

term patti-dàna) in the Tirokuóóa Sutta (Khp. and

Petavatthu) and its Com. (Khp. Tr.). It is one of the ten

‘bases of meritorious action’ (pu¤¤akiriyavatthu, q.v.),

called there pattànuppadàna. (App.).

See ‘The Doctrine of Reversible Merit’ by F. L.

Woodward. Buddhist Review (London), Vol. I (1914), p. 38.

penetration s. pañivedha, pariyatti. – For the power of

penetrating (vipphàra) knowledge and concentration,

s. iddhi. – For morality combined with penetration

(nibbedha), s. hàna-bhàgiya-sãla, etc. – For penetration

(pariya) of the mind of others, s. abhi¤¤à.

perfections, the 10: pàramã (q.v.).

perfect one, the: tathàgata (q.v.).

performance and avoidance: càritta-vàritta (q.v.).

– 266 –

permanency, idea of: s. vipallàsa.

personality: s. sakkàya. For personality-belief,

s. sakkàya diññhi, diññhi, attà, satta, puggala, vipallàsa.

perversions, the 4: vipallàsa (q.v.).

peta (Sanskrit preta): lit. ‘departed spirit’, ghost; s. loka.

petti-visaya: ‘ghost realm’; s. loka.

phala: lit. ‘fruit’. – 1. result, effect (often together with

hetu, cause); 2. benefit (e.g. in Sàma¤¤a-phala Sutta,

‘The Results, or Benefits, of Recluseship’; D. 2).

2. As ‘path-result’, or ‘fruition’, it denotes those

moments of supermundane consciousness which flash

forth immediately after the moment of path-consciousness

(s. ariya-puggala) and which, till the attainment of

the next higher path, may during the practice of insight

(vipassanà, q.v.) still recur innumerable times. If thus

repeated, they are called the ‘attainment of fruition

(phalasamàpatti), which is explained in detail in

Vis.M. XXIII.

phassa (fr. phusati, to touch): ‘sense-impression’,

contact. The term samphassa is used in compounds,

e.g. in the following: “There are 6 classes of senseimpression:

visual impression (cakkhu-samphassa),

impressions of hearing, smelling, tasting, bodily

(tactile) impression and mental impression” (M. 9).

A twofold division occurs in D. 15: pañigha (q.v.)

-samphassa, ‘impression by sensorial reaction’, and

adhivacana-samphassa, ‘verbal (or conceptual,

i.e. mental) impression’.

– 267 –

Phassa does not signify physical impact, but is one

of the 7 constant mental concomitants of consciousness

(cetasika) and belongs to the group of mental formations

(sankhàra-kkhandha). In lists of both these

categories it is generally mentioned first (e.g. Dhs. 1:

M. 9), due to its fundamental position in the cognitive

process In M. 18 it is thus defined: “Dependent on the

eye and the forms, eye-consciousness arises; the

coming-together of the three is sense-impression”

(similarly stated in the case of the other 5 senses,

including mind). In the dependent origination, it is

conditioned by the six sense-bases and is a conditioning

factor of feeling (s. pañicca-samuppàda 5, 6). Its relation

to mind-and-body (nàma-råpa) is described in D. 15,

and its influence on feeling and wrong views, in D. 1 (at

the end). – It is one of the 4 nutriments (àhàra, q.v.),

and the first factor in the pentad of sense-impression

(phassa-pa¤camaka), together with feeling, perception,

volition and consciousness (see Abh. St., p. 47ff).

Being a key function in the mind’s contact with the

world of objects and being a potential source of defilements,

sense-impression is an important subject for reflective

insight contemplation as succinctly formulated

in many verses of the Sn.: 736/7, 778, 851, 870/72, 923.

picked-up rags, wearing robes made from:

s. dhutanga.

piõóapàtik’anga: The ‘practice of going for alms’, is

one of the 13 ascetic purification-exercises

(s. dhutanga).

– 268 –

pãta-kasiõa: ‘yellow-kasiõa’, is one of the kasinaexercises;

s. kasiõa.

pãti: rapture, enthusiasm (rendered also by joy, happiness);

interest it is one of the mental factors or concomitants

(cetasika) and belongs to the group of mental

formations (sankhàra-kkhandha). As, in sutta texts, it is

often linked in a compound word. with ‘gladness’

(pàmojja) or ‘happiness’ (sukha), some Western translations

have wrongly taken it as a synonym of these two

terms. Pãti, however, is not a feeling or a sensation, and

hence does not belong to the feeling-group (vedanàkkhandha),

but may be described psychologically as

‘joyful interest’. As such it may be associated with

wholesome as well as with unwholesome and neutral

states of consciousness.

A high degree of rapture is characteristic of certain

stages in meditative concentration, in insight practice

(vipassanà) as well as in the first two absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.). In the latter it appears as one of the factors

of absorption (jhànanga; s. jhàna) and is strongest

in the 2nd absorption. Five degrees of intensity in meditative

rapture are described in Vis.M. IV. 94ff. It is one

of the factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.).

planes of existence, the 3: s. avacara.

pleasantness, idea of: s. vipallàsa, subhanimitta.

pondering: s. vãmamsà.

post-nascence: pacchàjàta-paccaya, one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

postures, the 4 bodily: iriyàpatha (q.v.).

– 269 –

powers, the 5 spiritual: s. bala. – For the 6 higher p.,

s. abhi¤¤na. For the 10 p. of a Buddha, s. dasabala. –

For the 4 roads to p., s. iddhipàda. For magical p.,

s. iddhi.

practice: For theory, practice and realization,

s. pariyatti.

predominance and pre-nascence: adhipati, purejàta,

are 2 of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

preparatory concentration (and preparatory

image, etc.): s. samàdhi, javana.

prescribed moral rules: pa¤¤atti-sãla (q.v.).

proclivities: s. anusaya.

produced corporeality: nipphanna-råpa (q.v.).

productive (or regenerative) karma; s. karma.

proficiency (of mental factors and consciousness):

pàgu¤¤atà (q.v.)

progress: s. pañipadà, abhabbagamana – p. in morality,

etc., s. hànabhàgiya, etc. – Purification by knowledge

and vision of path-progress, s. visuddhi (VI). – p. of the

disciple, s. foll.

progress of the disciple, Gradual development of the

Eightfold Path in the: In many suttas occurs an identical

passage that outlines the gradual course of development

in the progress of the disciple. There it is shown

how this development takes place gradually, and in

conformity with laws, from the very first hearing of the

– 270 –

doctrine, and from germinating faith and dim comprehension,

up to the final realization of deliverance.

“After hearing the law, he is filled with confidence,

and he thinks: ‘Full of hindrances is household life, a

refuse heap; but the homeless life (of a monk) is like

the open air. Not easy is it, when one lives at home, to

fulfill in all points the rules of the holy life. How if now

I were to cut off hair and beard, put on the yellow

robe, and go forth from home to the homeless life?’

And after a short time, having given up his possessions,

great or little, having forsaken a circle of relations,

small or large, he cuts off hair and beard, puts on the

yellow robe, and goes forth from home to the homeless

life.

Having thus left the world, he fulfills the rules of

the monks. He avoids the killing of living beings and

abstains from it; without stick or sword, conscientious,

full of sympathy, he is desirous of the welfare of all

living beings. He avoids stealing… avoids unchastity…

avoids lying… tale-bearing… harsh language… vain

talk.

“He abstains from destroying vegetal germs and

plants; eats only at one time of the day; keeps aloof

from dance, song, music and the visiting of shows;

rejects floral adornment, perfumes, ointment, as well as

any other kind of adornment and embellishment. High

and gorgeous beds he does not use. Gold and silver he

does not accept… keeps aloof from buying and selling

things….

“He contents himself with the robe that protects his

body, and with the alms-bowl with which he keeps himself

alive. Wherever he goes, he is provided with these

– 271 –

two things, just as a winged bird in flying carries its

wings along with him.

“By fulfilling this noble domain of morality (sãla)

he feels in his heart an irreproachable happiness.”

In what follows thereafter it is shown how the disciple

watches over his 5 senses and his mind, and by

this noble restraint of the senses (indriya-samvara)

feels in his heart an unblemished happiness; how in all

his actions he is ever mindful and clearly conscious;

and how, being equipped with this lofty morality (sãla),

and with this noble restraint of the senses (indriyasaüvara),

and with mindfulness and clear consciousness

(sati-sampaja¤¤a), he chooses a secluded dwelling,

and freeing his mind from the 5 hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.) he reaches full concentration

(samàdhi, q.v.); and how thereafter, by developing

insight (vipassanà q.v.) with regard to the impermanency

(anicca), misery (dukkha) and impersonality

(anattà, q.v.) of all phenomena of existence, he finally

realizes deliverance from all cankers and defilements,

and thus the assurance arises in him:

“For ever am I liberated,

This is the last time I am born,

No new existence waits for me.”

Cf. D.1, 2f; M. 27, 38, 51, 60, 76; A. IV, 198; X, 99:

Pug. 239, etc.

proximity: anantara, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

– 272 –

pubbenivàsànussati: ‘remembrance of former births’,

is one of the higher powers (abhi¤¤à, q.v.), and a factor

of threefold knowledge (tevijja, q.v.).

puggala: ‘individual’, ‘person’, as well as the synonyms:

personality, individuality, being (satta), self (attà), etc.,

in short all terms designating a personal entity, hence

also: I, you, he, man, god, etc., all these, according to

Buddhism, are mere names for certain combinations of

material and mental processes, and apart from them

they have no real existence. They are to be considered

as mere ‘conventional modes of expression’ (vohàravacana),

and on that level they may be used, and are so

used in the sutta texts, if taken “without misapprehending

them” (s. quote from D. 9 under paramattha). With

such tacit reservations, the term puggala occurs quite

frequently in the suttas.

In the ultimate sense (paramattha, q.v.), however,

there exist only ever-changing physical and mental

phenomena, flashing up and dying every moment. –

Kath., in its first section, discusses the question whether

“in the absolute sense, any personality (puggala) can be

found” (s. Guide, pp. 62ff). – See paramattha, anattà.

påjà: (1) honour, respect, homage, (2) worship,

devotional observances, devotional offerings; also

offerings to monks.

(1) The Mahà-mangala Sutta (Sn. 259) says that

“Honour and respect towards those worthy of it, is

conducive to great blessing” (påjà ca påjaniyesu etaü

mangalam uttamaü). See Dhp. 195f.

– 273 –

(2) The Buddha did not think much of mere outer

worship. “Not thus, Ananda, is the Tathàgata respected,

venerated, esteemed, worshipped and honoured in the

highest degree. But, Ananda, whatsoever bhikkhu or

bhikkhuni, lay man or lay woman, abides by the

Teaching, lives uprightly in the Teaching, walks in the

way of the Teaching, it is by him that the Tathàgata is

respected, venerated, esteemed, worshipped and

honoured in the highest degree” (D. 16). – “There are

two kinds of worship: in a material way (àmisa-påjà)

and through (practice of) the Dhamma (dhamma-påjà).

The worship through (practice of) the Dhamma is the

better of the two” (A. II).

punabbhava: lit.: re-becoming; ‘renewed existence’, is

a sutta term for ‘rebirth’, which, in later literature mostly

is called pañisandhi (q.v.). The attainment of Sainthood

(arahatta), implying the end of future rebirths, is

often expressed in the words: “This is the last birth.

Now there is no more a renewed existence!” (natthi

’dàni punabbhavo) (M. 26; D. 15; Therag. 87, 339;

Sn. 502). – The term is often linked with abhinibbatti

(‘arising’).

“But how, O brother, does it come to renewed

existence and arising in the future (àyatiü

punabbhavàbhinibbatti)? Because beings, obstructed by

ignorance and fettered by craving, find ever fresh

delight now here, now there, for this reason there is

renewed existence and arising in the future” (M. 43).

See also S.XII. 38. Abhinibbatti also stands sometimes

alone in signifying ‘rebirth’, e.g. in A. VI, 61; X, 65.

Cf., in the 2nd Truth, the adj. ponobhavika, ‘leading

to renewed existence’.

– 274 –

See A. III, 76; Sn. 163, 273, 514, 733; S. VII, 12;

X, 3.

pu¤¤a: merit, meritorious, is a popular term for karmically

wholesome (kusala) action. Opposite terms:

apu¤¤a, ‘demerit’; pàpa, ‘bad’, ‘evil’, The value of meritorious

action is often stressed, e.g., in the Treasure

Store Sutta (s. Khp. Tr.), Dhp 18, 118, 122. – The

Community of Holy Monks (ariya-sangha), the third

Refuge (s. ti-sarana), is said to be “the incomparable

field of merit in the world” (anuttaraü pu¤¤akkhettaü

lokassa); s. anussati 3. The Arahats, however, having

transcended all life-affirming and rebirth-producing

actions, are said to be “beyond merit and demerit”; see

Sn. 520, 547, 636, 790. – See foll. 3 articles.

pu¤¤àbhisankhàra: ‘meritorious karma-formations’ of

the sensuous and fine-material sphere; s. sankhàra I. 1.

pu¤¤à-dhàrà: ‘streams of merit’. It is said that one

produces 4 streams of merit by offering the 4 requisites

(robes, almsfood, dwelling, medicine) to a monk who

has reached the conditionless deliverance of mind;

further by being filled with unshakable faith in the

Buddha, his doctrine and community of disciples, and

by being perfect in morality (A. IV, 51, 52). A. VIII, 39

describes 4 further streams of merit.

pu¤¤a-kiriya-vatthu: ‘bases of meritorious action’. In

the suttas, 3 are mentioned consisting of giving

(liberality; dàna-maya-p.), of morality (sãla-maya-p.)

and of mental development (meditation; bhàvanàmaya-

p.). See D. 33; It. 60; expl. in A. VIII, 36.

– 275 –

Commentaries have a list of ten (dasa p.) which is

very popular in Buddhist countries: (1)-(3) as above,

(4) reverence (apaciti), (5) service (veyyàvacca),

(6) transference of merit (pattànuppadàna),

(7) rejoicing in others’ merit (abbhànumodana),

(8) expounding the Doctrine (desanà), (9) listening to

the Doctrine (savana), (10) straightening one’s right

views (rectification of views; diññhujukamma). – Expl. in

Atthasàlini Tr. 209ff.

See ‘The Advantages of Merit’, by Bhikkhu Khantipalo

(Bodhi Leaves B. 38).

pure abodes: suddhàvàsa (q.v.).

purejàta-paccaya: ‘pre-nascence’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

purification, the 7 stages of; s. visuddhi.

purisindriya: ‘Virility’; s. bhàva, khandha.

purity, the elements of the effort for:

pàrisuddhipadhàniyanga (q.v.).

puthujjana: lit.: ‘one of the many folk’, ‘worldling’,

ordinary man, is any layman or monk who is still possessed

of all the 10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.) binding to

the round of rebirths, and therefore has not yet reached

any of the 4 stages of holiness (s. ariya-puggala).

“Whoso is neither freed from the 3 fetters (personality-

belief, sceptical doubt, attachment to mere rule

and ritual), nor is on the way to lose these 3 things,

such a one is called a worldling” (Pug. 9).

– 276 –

According to Com. to M. 9, a ‘worldling’ may be

(1) an outsider (a non-Buddhist) who, if he believed in

moral causation, may be said to have right view to that

extent; but he has not the ‘knowledge conforming to

the Truths’ (saccànulomika-¤àõa), as has (2) the

‘worldling inside the Buddha’s Dispensation’ (sàsanika).

A worldling who professes Buddhism, may be either a

‘blind worldling’ (andha-p.) who has neither knowledge

of, nor interest in the fundamental teaching (the

Truths, groups, etc.); or he is a ‘noble worldling’

(kalyàna-p.), who has such knowledge and earnestly

strives to understand and practise the Teaching. – See

Atthasàlini Tr. II, 451 (tr. by ‘average man’); Com. to

M. 1, D. 1.

– 277 –

Q

questions and answers: pa¤hà-byàkarana (q.v.).

R

radiant gods: àbhassara; cf. deva.

ràga: ‘lust’, ‘greed’, is a synonym of lobha (s. måla),

taõhà (q.v.) and abhijjhà (s. kammapatha). For kàma-,

råpa-, aråpa-ràga, s. saüyojana.

ràga-carita: the ‘greedy-natured’; s. carita.

rapture: pãti (q.v.); further s. bojjhanga.

reaction, sense-: s. pañigha.

ready-wit: s. pañisambhidà.

reality: s. paramattha. – Vision and knowledge according

to r.- s. vipassanà 15.

realization: For theory, practice and r., s. pariyatti.

rebirth: s. pañisandhi, pañiccasamuppàda (3,10), karma,

punabbhava.

– 278 –

receptive consciousness: sampañicchana-citta

(s. vi¤¤àõakicca).

recollections: s. anussati.

red-kasina exercise: s. kasiõa.

reflecting contemplation: pañisankhànupassanà

(s. vipassanà, 17).

reflection, power of: pañisankhàna-bala (q.v.).

reflex-perceptions: s. pañigha (2a).

refuge-formula, the 3-fold: ti-saraõa (q.v.).

regenerating process: upapatti-bhava (s. bhava).

regenerative karma: janaka-kamma (s. karma).

registering consciousness: tadàrammaõa-citta

(s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca).

relative truth: cf. puggala, paramattha-sacca, desanà,

anattà, satta.

remembrance, of former existences: s. abhi¤¤à 4.

remorse: kukkucca (q.v.).

repetition: àsevana-paccaya, is one of the 24 conditions

(paccaya, q.v.).

repression, overcoming by: vikkhambhana-pahàna

(s. pahàna).

repugnance: pañigha (q.v.).

resistance-perceptions: s. pañigha (2a).

– 279 –

restlessness: uddhacca (q.v.).

retrospective knowledge: paccavekkhaõa-¤àõa (q.v.).

reversible merit: patti-dàna (q.v.).

right understanding (or r. view), r. thought, etc.:

s. magga.

rise and fall (of phenomena): the knowledge consisting

in the contemplation of r. and f., s. visuddhi VI, 1.

round of rebirth: s. vañña (2), saüsàra. – The 3-fold

r. of r. (s. vañña, 1).

rukkha mulik’anga: s. dhutanga.

rules and ritual, clinging to mere: (s. saüyojana,

upàdàna).

ruminating-natured: vitakka-carita (s. carita).

råpa: (1) corporeality (s. khandha 1); (2) visual object

(s. àyatana); (3) fine-material (s. avacara, jhàna).

råpa-jjhàna: s. jhàna.

råpa-kalàpa: ‘corporeal group’, material unit, designates

a combination of several physical phenomena

constituting a temporary unity. Thus, for instance, the

so-called ‘dead matter’ forms the most primitive group,

consisting only of 8 physical phenomena, called the

‘pure eightfold unit’ or ‘octad’ (suddhaññhakakalàpa), to

wit: the 4 elements (the solid, fluid, heat, motion);

colour, smell, taste, nutriment (pañhavã, àpo, tejo, vàyo;

vaõõa, gandha, rasa, ojà). In Vis.M., and elsewhere, it is

– 280 –

also called ojaññhamaka-kalàpa, ‘the octad with nutriment

as the 8th factor’.

The simplest form of living matter is the ‘9-fold

vitality unit’ or ‘life-ennead’ (jãvita-navaka-kalàpa),

formed by adding ‘vitality’ to the octad. Seven decades,

or units of ten (dasaka-kalàpa), are formed by adding to

the 9-fold unit one of the following corporeal phenomena:

heart (physical seat of mind), sex, eye, ear, nose,

tongue or body. – See Vis.M. XVIII, 4; Compendium of

Buddhist Philosophy (PTS), p. 164, 250; Atthasàlini Tr.,

II, 413f.

råpa-kàya: ‘body-group’, as distinguished from nàmakàya,

‘mind-group’ (q.v.). See nàma-råpa.

råpa-kkhandha: ‘corporeality group’; s. khandha (1).

råpa loka: ‘fine-material world’; s. loka.

råpàrammaõa: ‘visual object’, designates the external

of visual physical phenomenon (‘light wave’) that forms

the base consciousness. Cf. àyatana (2).

råpa-råpa = nipphanna-råpa (q.v.).

råpàvacara: s. avacara.

råpàyatana: s. àyatana (2).

– 281 –

S

sabba-loke anabhirati-sa¤¤à: ‘contemplation on disinterestedness

regarding the whole world’, described in

A. X., 60 in the following words: “If, Ananda, the monk

gives up his tenacious clinging to the world, his firm

grasping and his biases and inclinations of the mind,

and turns away from these things, does not cling to

them, this, Ananda, is called the contemplation on

disinterestedness regarding the whole world.”

sabbåpadhi-pañinissagga: s. upadhi.

sacca: ‘Truth’. – 1. On the ‘two truths’, conventional

and ultimate, see paramattha.

2. ‘The Four Noble Truths’ (ariya-sacca) are the

briefest synthesis of the entire teachings of Buddhism,

since all those manifold doctrines of the threefold

canon are, without any exception, included therein.

They are: the truth of suffering, of the origin of suffering,

of the extinction of suffering, and of the Eightfold

Path leading to the extinction of suffering.

I. The 1st truth, briefly stated, teaches that all forms

of existence whatsoever are unsatisfactory and subject

to suffering (dukkha).

– 282 –

II. The 2nd truth teaches that all suffering, and all

rebirth, is produced by craving (taõhà).

III. The 3rd truth teaches that extinction of craving

necessarily results in extinction (nirodha) of rebirth and

suffering, i.e. nibbàna (q.v.).

IV. The 4th truth of the Eightfold Path (magga)

indicates the means by which this extinction is attained.

The stereotype text frequently recurring in the

Sutta Piñaka, runs as follows:

I. “But what, O monks, is the noble truth of suffering?

Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, death is suffering;

sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are

suffering; in short, the 5 groups of existence connected

with clinging are suffering (cf. dukkha, dukkhata).

II. ‘‘But what, O monks, is the noble truth of the

origin of suffering? It is that craving which gives rise to

fresh rebirth and, bound up with lust and greed, now

here, now there, finds ever fresh delight. It is the

sensual craving (kàma-taõhà), the craving for existence

(bhava-taõhà), the craving for non-existence or selfannihilation

(vibhava-taõhà).

III. “But what, O monks, is the noble truth of the

extinction of suffering? It is the complete fading away

and extinction of this craving, its forsaking and giving

up, liberation and detachment from it.

IV. “But what, O monks, is the noble truth of the

path leading to the extinction of suffering? It is the

Noble Eightfold Path (ariya-aññhangika-magga) that

leads to the extinction of suffering, namely:

– 283 –

1. Right view (sammà-diññhi)

2. Right thought (sammà-sankappa)

III. Wisdom

(pa¤¤à)

3. Right speech (sammà-vàcà)

4. Right action (sammà-kammanta)

5. Right livelihood (sammà-àjiva)

I. Morality

(sãla)

6. Right effort (sammà-vàyàma)

7. Right mindfulness (sammà-sati)

8. Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi)

II. Concentration

(samàdhi)

1. “What now, O monks, is right view (or right

understanding)? It is the understanding of suffering, of

the origin of suffering, of the extinction of suffering,

and of the path leading to the extinction of suffering.

2. “What now, O monks, is right thought? It is a

mind free from sensual lust, ill-will and cruelty.

3. “What now, O monks, is right speech? Abstaining

from lying, tale-bearing, harsh words, and foolish

babble (cf. tiracchànakathà).

4. “What now, O monks, is right action? Abstaining

from injuring living beings, from stealing and from

unlawful sexual intercourse (s. kàmesu micchàcàra).

5. “What now, O monks, is right livelihood? If the

noble disciple rejects a wrong living, and gains his

living by means of right livelihood (s. magga, 5).

6. “What now, O monks, is right effort? If the disciple

rouses his will to avoid the arising of evil, demeritorious

things that have not yet arisen;… if he rouses

his will to overcome the evil, demeritorious things that

have already arisen;… if he rouses his will to produce

– 284 –

meritorious things that have not yet arisen;… if he

rouses his will to maintain the meritorious things that

have already arisen and not to let them disappear, but

to bring them to growth, to maturity and to the full

perfection of development; he thus makes effort, stirs

up his energy, exerts his mind and strives (s. padhàna).

7. “What now, O monks is right mindfulness? If the

disciple dwells in contemplation of corporeality… of

feeling… of mind… of the mind-objects, ardent, clearly

conscious, and mindful after putting away worldly

greed and grief (s. satipaññhàna).

8. “What now, O monks, is right concentration? If

the disciple is detached from sensual objects, detached

from unwholesome things, and enters into the first

absorption… the second absorption… the third absorption…

the fourth absorption” (s. jhàna).

In the Buddha’s first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana

Sutta, it is said that the first truth (suffering)

is to be fully understood; the second truth (craving) to

be abandoned; the third truth (Nibbàna) to be realized;

the fourth truth (the path) to be cultivated.

“The truth of suffering is to be compared with a

disease, the truth of the origin of suffering with the

cause of the disease, the truth of extinction of suffering

with the cure of the disease, the truth of the path with

the medicine” (Vis.M. XVI).

“In the ultimate sense, all these 4 truths are to be

considered as empty of a self, since there is no feeling

agent, no doer, no liberated one. no one who follows

along the path. Therefore it is said:

– 285 –

‘Mere suffering exists, no sufferer is found.

The deed is, but no doer of the deed is there.

Nibbàna is, but not the man that enters it.

The path is, but no traveller on it is seen.

‘The first truth and the second truth are empty

Of permanency, joy, of self and beauty;

The Deathless Realm is empty of an ego,

And free from permanency, joy and self, the path.’

(Vis.M. XVI)

It must be pointed out that the first truth does not

merely refer to actual suffering, i.e. to suffering as

feeling, but that it shows that, in consequence of the

universal law of impermanency, all the phenomena of

existence whatsoever, even the sublimest states of

existence, are subject to change and dissolution, and

hence are miserable and unsatisfactory; and that thus,

without exception, they all contain in themselves the

germ of suffering. Cf. Guide, p. 101f.

Regarding the true nature of the path, s. magga.

Literature: Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (in

Wheel 17 and Bodhi Leaves); M. 141; Sacca-Saüyutta

(S. LVI); Sacca Vibhanga; W. of B.; Vis.M. XVI: The Four

Noble Truths by Francis Story (Wheel 34/35); The

Significance of the 4 Noble Truths by V. F. Gunaratna

(Wheel 123).

sacca-¤àõa: ‘knowledge of the truth’ (s. prec.), may be

of 2 kinds: (1) knowledge consisting in understanding

(anubodha-¤àõa) and (2) knowledge consisting in

penetration (pativedha-¤àõa), i.e. realization.

Cf. pariyatti.

– 286 –

“Amongst these, (1) ‘knowledge consisting in

understanding’ is mundane (lokiya, q.v.), and its arising

with regard to the extinction of suffering, and to the

path, is due to hearsay etc. (therefore not due to one’s

realization of the supermundane path; s. ariya-puggala)

(2) ‘Knowledge consisting in penetration’, however, is

supermundane (lokuttara), with the extinction of

suffering (= nibbàna) as object, it penetrates with its

functions the 4 truths (in one and the same moment),

as it is said (S. LVI, 30): whosoever, O monks, understands

suffering, he also understands the origin of

suffering, the extinction of suffering, and the path leading

to the extinction of suffering’ ” (Vis.M. XVI, 84). See

visuddhi (end of article).

“Of the mundane kinds of knowledge, however, the

knowledge of suffering by which (various) prejudices

are overcome, dispels the personality-belief (sakkàyadiññhi,

s. diññhi). The knowledge of the origin of suffering

dispels the annihilation-view (uccheda-diññhi,

s. diññhi); the knowledge of extinction of suffering, the

eternity-view (sassata-diññhi, s. diññhi); the knowledge

of the path, the view of inefficacy of action (akiriyadiññhi,

s. diññhi)” (Vis.M. XVI, 85).

saccànulomika-¤àõa: anuloma-¤àõa (q.v.),

puthujjana.

sacchikaraõãyà dhammà: ‘things to be realized’.

Recollection of former states of existence is to be realized

through remembrance (abhi¤¤à 4; q.v.). The

vanishing and reappearing of beings is to be realized

through the divine eye (abhi¤¤à 5; q.v.). The 8 deliver-

287 –

ances (vimokkha, q.v.) are to be realized through the

mental group (kàya, here feeling, perception, mental

formations; s. kàya). The extinction of cankers is to be

realized through insight (vipassanà).

saddhà: faith, confidence. A Buddhist is said to have

faith if “he believes in the Perfect One’s (the Buddha’s)

Enlightenment” (M 53; A.V, 2), or in the Three Jewels

(s. ti-ratana), by taking his refuge in them (s. ti-sarana).

His faith, however, should be “reasoned and rooted in

understanding” (àkàravatà saddhà dassanamålika;

M. 47), and he is asked to investigate and test the object

of his faith (M. 47, 95). A Buddhist’s faith is not in

conflict with the spirit of inquiry, and “doubt about

dubitable things” (A. II, 65; S. XLII, 13) is admitted and

inquiry into them is encouraged. The ‘faculty of faith’

(saddhindriya) should be balanced with that of wisdom

(pa¤¤indriya; s. indriya-samatta). It is said: “A monk

who has understanding, establishes his faith in accordance

with that understanding” (S. XLVIII, 45). Through

wisdom and understanding, faith becomes an inner certainty

and firm conviction based on one’s own

experience.

Faith is called the seed (Sn. v. 77) of all wholesome

states because, according to commentarial

explanations, it inspires the mind with confidence

(okappana, pasàda) and determination (adhimokkha),

for ‘launching out’ (pakkhandhana; s. M. 122) to cross

the flood of saüsàra.

Unshakable faith is attained on reaching the first

stage of holiness, ‘stream-entry’ (sotàpatti,

s. ariyapuggala), when the fetter of sceptical doubt

(vicikicchà; s. saüyojana) is eliminated. Unshakable

– 288 –

confidence (avecca-pasàda) in the Three Jewels is one

of the characteristic qualities of the Stream-winner

(sotàpannassa angàni, q.v.).

Faith is a mental concomitant, present in all karmically

wholesome, and its corresponding neutral, consciousness

(s. Tab. II). It is one of the 4 streams of merit

(pu¤¤adhàrà, q.v.), one of the 5 spiritual faculties

(indriya, q.v.), spiritual powers (bala, q.v.), elements of

exertion (padhàniyanga, q.v.) and one of the

7 treasures (dhana, q.v.).

See Faith in the Buddha’s Teaching, by Soma Thera

(Wheel 262). “Does Saddhà mean Faith?’’ by ¥ànamoli

Thera (in Wheel 52/53).

saddhànusàri and saddhà-vimutta: the ‘faithdevoted

and the ‘faith-liberated’, are two of the 7 kinds

of noble disciples (s. ariya-puggala, B.).

sagga: ‘heaven’; s. deva (heavenly beings).

sahajàta-paccaya: ‘co-nascence’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

sahetuka-citta: s. hetu.

sakadàgàmã: the ‘Once-returner’: s. ariya-puggala, A.

sakka: the ‘King of Gods’ (devànam-inda), is the lord

over the celestial beings in the heaven of the Thirty-

Three’ (tàvatiüsa, s. deva).

sakkàya: ‘existing group’. ‘this word is usually translated

by ‘personality’, but according to the commentaries

it corresponds to sat-kàya, ‘existing group’, hence

not to Sanskrit sva-kàya, ‘own group’ or ‘own body’. In

– 289 –

the suttas (e.g. M. 44) it is said to be a name for the

5 groups of existence (khandha): “Sakkàya, O Brother

Visàkha, is said by the Blessed One to be a name for the

5 ‘groups as objects of clinging’ (upàdàna-kkhandha), to

wit: corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations,

and consciousness.” – See foll.

sakkàya-diññhi: ‘personality-belief’, is the first of the

10 fetters (saüyojana). It is entirely abandoned only on

reaching the path of Stream-winning (sotàpatti-magga;

s. ariya-puggala). There are 20 kinds of personalitybelief,

which are obtained by applying 4 types of that

belief to each of the 5 groups of existence

(khandha, q.v.): (1-5) the belief to be identical with

corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations or

consciousness; (6-10) to be contained in them; (11-15)

to be independent of them; (16-20) to be the owner of

them (M. 44; S. XXII. 1). See prec., diññhi, upàdàna 4.

salàyatana: the ‘6 bases’ (of mental activity);

s. àyatana, pañiccasamuppàda.

samàdhi: ‘concentration’; lit. ‘the (mental) state of

being firmly fixed’ (sam+à+√ dhà), is the fixing of the

mind on a single object. “One-pointedness of mind

(cittass’ ekaggatà), Brother Visakha, this is called concentration”

(M. 44). Concentration – though often very

weak – is one of the 7 mental concomitants inseparably

associated with all consciousness. Cf. nàma, cetanà.

Right concentration (sammà-samàdhi), as the last

link of the 8-fold Path (s. magga), is defined as the

4 meditative absorptions (jhàna, q.v.). In a wider sense,

comprising also much weaker states of concentration, it

– 290 –

is associated with all karmically wholesome (kusala)

consciousness. Wrong concentration (micchà-samàdhi)

is concentration associated with all karmically unwholesome

(akusala, q.v.) consciousness. Wherever in

the texts this term is not differentiated by ‘right’ or

‘wrong’, there ‘right’ concentration is meant.

In concentration one distinguishes 3 grades of

intensity:

(1) ‘Preparatory concentration’ (parikammasamàdhi)

existing at the beginning of the mental

exercise.

(2) ‘Neighbourhood concentration’ (upacàrasamàdhi),

i.e. concentration ‘approaching’ but not yet

attaining the 1st absorption (jhàna, q.v.), which in

certain mental exercises is marked by the appearance of

the so-called ‘counter-image’ (pañibhàga-nimitta).

(3) ‘Attainment concentration’ (appanà-samàdhi),

i.e. that concentration which is present during the

absorptions. (App.)

Further details, s. bhàvana, Vis.M. III and Fund. IV.

Concentration connected with the 4 noble pathmoments

(magga), and fruition-moments (phala), is

called supermundane (lokuttara), having Nibbàna as

object. Any other concentration, even that of the

sublimest absorptions is merely mundane (lokiya, q.v.).

According to D. 33, the development of concentration

(samàdhi-bhàvanà) may procure a 4-fold blessing:

(1) present happiness through the 4 absorptions;

(2) knowledge and vision (¤àõa-dassana) – here

probably identical with the ‘divine eye’ (s. abhi¤¤à)

through perception of light (kasiõa); (3) mindfulness

and clear comprehension through the clear knowledge

– 291 –

of the arising, persisting and vanishing of feelings, perceptions

and thoughts; (4) extinction of all cankers

(àsavakkhaya) through understanding the arising and

passing away of the 5 groups forming the objects of

clinging (s. khandha).

Concentration is one of the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.), one of the 5 spiritual faculties

and powers (s. bala), and the last link of the 8-fold

Path. In the 3-fold division of the 8-fold Path (morality,

concentration and wisdom), it is a collective name for

the three last links of the path (s. sikkhà).

samàdhi-parikkhàra: ‘means, or requisites of concentration’,

are the 4 foundations of mindfulness

(satipaññhàna q.v.). See M. 44.

samàdhi-samàpatti-kusalatà, -ñhiti-kusalatà,

-uññhànakusalatà: skillfulness in entering into

concentration, in remaining in it, and in rising from it.

Cf. S.XXXIV, llff.

samàdhi-sambojjhanga: ‘concentration as factor of

enlightenment’ (s. bojjhanga).

samàdhi-vipphàrà iddhi: the ‘power of penetrating

concentration’, is one of the magical faculties

(iddhi, q.v.).

samanantara-paccaya: ‘contiguity’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

sàma¤¤a-phala; the ‘fruits of monkhood’, is the name

of a famous sutta (D. 2) and also, according to D. 33,

a name for the 4 supermundane fruitions: Stream-

292 –

entrance, Once-return, Non-return, and Perfect

Holiness (s. ariya-puggala).

samàpatti: ‘attainments’, is a name for the 8 absorptions

of the fine-material and immaterial spheres to

which occasionally is added as 9th attainment,

attainment of extinction (nirodhasamàpatti) Cf. jhàna.

sama-sãsã: one ‘who attains two ends simultaneously’,

namely: the extinction of cankers and the end of life

(s. Pug. 19). In A. VIII, 6 it is said: “Such is the case with

a monk who dwells in the contemplation of impermanency

of all forms of existence, keeping before his eyes

their impermanency, perceiving their impermanency,

perseveringly, steadfastly, undisturbed, of firm mind,

wisely absorbed; and in whom at one and the same

time the extinction of cankers and the end of like take

place.” (App.)

samatha: ‘tranquillity’, serenity, is a synonym of

samàdhi (concentration), cittekaggatà (one-pointedness

of mind) and avikkhepa (undistractedness). It is one of

the mental factors in ‘wholesome consciousness.

Cf. foll. and bhàvanà.

samatha-vipassanà: ‘tranquillity and insight’, are

identical with concentration (samàdhi, q.v.; s. prec.)

and wisdom (pa¤¤à, q.v.), and form the two branches

of mental development (bhàvanà, q.v.).

(1) ‘Tranquillity’ is all unperturbed, peaceful and

lucid state of mind attained by strong mental concentration.

Though as a distinct way of practice

(s. samatha-yànika), it aims at the attainment of the

– 293 –

meditative absorptions (jhàna, q.v.), a high degree of

tranquil concentration (though not necessarily that of

the absorptions) is indispensable for insight too.

Tranquillity frees the mind from impurities and inner

obstacles, and gives it greater penetrative strength.

‘‘What now is the power of tranquillity (samathabala)?

It is the one-pointedness and non-distraction of

the mind due to freedom from desire (renunciation)…

to freedom from ill-will… to the perception of light

(s. aloka-sa¤¤à)… to non-distraction… to the defining

of phenomena… to knowledge, gladness, the 8 attainments,

the 10 kasinas, the 10 recollections, the 9 cemetery

contemplations, the 32 kinds of respiration-mindfulness…

the one-pointedness and non-distraction of

the mind of one contemplating abandonment (relinquishment)

while inhaling and exhaling (s. ànàpànasati).

“The power of tranquillity consists of the freedom

from perturbation; in the 1st absorption, from the

5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, (q.v.); in the 2nd absorption,

from thought-conception and discursive thinking;… in

the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception it

consists of the freedom from perturbation by the perception

of the sphere of nothingness (s. anupubbanirodha),

which is no longer agitated and irritated by defilements

associated with restlessness, nor by the groups of

existence” (Pts.M. 1. p. 97)

(2) ‘Insight’ (s. vipassanà) is the penetrative understanding

by direct meditative experience of the impermanency,

unsatisfactoriness and impersonality of all

material and mental phenomena of existence. It is

– 294 –

insight that leads to entrance into the supermundane

states of holiness and to final liberation.

‘‘What now is the power of insight? It is the contemplation

of impermanency (aniccànupassanà), of misery

(dukkhanupassanà), impersonality’ (anattànupassanà),

of aversion (nibbidanupassanà), detachment

(viràganupassanà), extinction (nirodha), abandonment

(pañinissagga), with regard to corporeality, feeling,

perception, mental formations and consciousness….

That in contemplating the impermanency one is no

more agitated by the idea of grasping… no more by

ignorance and the defilements associated therewith and

no more by the groups of existence: this is called the

power of insight” (Pts.M. p. 97).

“Two things are conducive to knowledge: tranquillity

and insight. If tranquillity is developed, what

profit does it bring? The mind is developed. If the mind

is developed, what profit does it bring? All lust is

abandoned.

“If insight is developed, what profit does it bring?

Wisdom is developed. If wisdom is developed, what

profit does it bring? All ignorance is abandoned”

(A. II, 2.7).

There is a method of meditative practice where, in

alternating sequence, tranquillity-meditation and insight-

meditation are developed. It is called ‘tranquillity

and insight joined in pairs’ (samatha-vipassanàyuganaddha),

the coupling or yoking of tranquillity and

insight. He who undertakes it, first enters into the 1st

absorption. After rising from it, he contemplates the

– 295 –

mental phenomena that were present in it (feeling, perception,

etc.) as impermanent, painful and not-self, and

thus he develops insight. Thereupon he enters into the

2nd absorption; and after rising from it, he again considers

its constituent phenomena as impermanent, etc.

In this way, he passes from one absorption to the next,

until at last, during a moment of insight, the intuitive

knowledge of the path (of Stream-entry, etc.) flashes

forth – See A. IV, 170; A.IX, 36; Pts: Yuganaddha Kathà.

samatha-yànika: ‘one who takes tranquillity as his

vehicle’. This is a name for a person who not only has

reached insight but also one or the other of the absorptions,

to distinguish him from one ‘who practises only

insight’ (sukkha-vipassaka, q.v.).

sambodhi = bodhi (q.v.).

sambojjhanga = bojjhanga (q.v.).

sammà-diññhi, –sankappa, –vaca, etc: see magga.

sammà-magga: see micchà-magga.

sammà-ppadhàna: ‘right exertion’, is identical with the

6th link of the 8-fold path (s. magga, padhàna).

sammà-sambodhi: ‘Perfect Enlightenment’, Universal

Buddhahood, is the state attained by a Universal

Buddha (sammà-sambuddha), i.e. one by whom the

liberating law (dhamma) which had become lost to the

world, has again been discovered, realized and clearly

proclaimed to the world.

– 296 –

“Now, someone, in things never heard before,

understands by himself the truth, and he therein attains

omniscience, and gains mastery in the powers. Such a

one is called a Universal Buddha, or Enlightened One”

(Pug. 29).

The doctrine characteristic of all the Buddhas, and

each time rediscovered by them and fully explained to

the world, consists in the 4 Truths (sacca, q.v.) of

suffering, its origin, its extinction and the way to its

extinction (s. magga). See bodhi.

sammasana: ‘comprehension’, exploring, ‘determining’

(vavatthàna, q.v.) is a name for the determining of all

phenomena of existence as impermanent, miserable

and impersonal (anicca, dukkha, anattà), etc., which is

the beginning of insight (s. Pts.M. I, p. 53; Vis.M. XX);

also called kalàpa-s. (q.v.), ‘comprehension by groups

(of existence – khandha).’ (App.).

sammatta: the ‘state of rightness’, are the 8 links of the

8-fold Path (D. 33). Cf. micchàtta.

sammuti-sacca: ‘conventional truth’, is identical with

vohàra-sacca (s. paramattha-sacca).

sampadà: ‘attainment, blessing’. The 5 blessings are

said to be faith, morality, learning, liberality, wisdom

(A. V, 91). Further: morality, concentration, wisdom,

deliverance, the eye of knowledge connected with

deliverance (A. V, 92).

sampaja¤¤a: ‘clarity of consciousness’, clear comprehension.

This term is frequently met with in combination

with mindfulness (sati). In D. 22, M. 10 it is said:

– 297 –

“Clearly conscious is he in going and coming, clearly

conscious in looking forward and backward, clearly

conscious in bending and stretching his body; clearly

conscious in eating, drinking, chewing and tasting,

clearly conscious in discharging excrement and urine;

clearly conscious in walking, standing, sitting, falling

asleep and awakening; clearly conscious in speaking

and keeping silent.” – For a definition of the term satisampaja¤¤

a, s. Pug. 86.

According to the Com., ‘clarity of consciousness’ is

of 4 kinds: regarding the purpose, the suitability,

(inclusion in the meditative) domain, and the undeluded

conception of the activity concerned. Explained in

detail in Com. to Satipaññhàna Sutta. (tr. in The Way of

Mindfulness, by Soma Thera; BPS).

sampañicchana-citta: ‘receptive consciousness’, is the

mind-element (mano-dhàtu) that follows immediately

upon the arising of sense-consciousness (visual consciousness,

etc.), performing on that occasion the

function of receiving the sense-object. Regarding the

other functions of consciousness, s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

sampayutta-paccaya: ‘condition of association’, is one

of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

samphassa = phassa (q.v.).

saüsàra: ‘round of rebirth’, lit. perpetual wandering’,

is a name by which is designated the sea of life ever

restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this

continuous process of ever again and again being born,

growing old, suffering and dying. More precisely put,

– 298 –

saüsàra is the unbroken chain of the five-fold khandhacombinations,

which, constantly changing from moment

to moment follow continuously one upon the other

through inconceivable periods of time. Of this saüsàra,

a single lifetime constitutes only a tiny and fleeting fraction;

hence to be able to comprehend the first noble

truth of universal suffering, one must let one’s gaze rest

upon the saüsàra, upon this frightful chain of rebirths,

and not merely upon one single life-time, which, of

course, may be sometimes less painful. – Cf. tilakkhaõa,

anattà, paramattha, pañisandhi.

saüseva: ‘companionship’. (1) “Through companionship

with bad men (asappurisa-s.) comes listening to

bad advice, thereby unwise reflection, thereby inattention

and mental confusion, thereby lack of sensecontrol,

thereby 3-fold bad conduct in bodily action,

speech and mind, thereby the 5 hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.), thereby craving for existence.

(2) Through companionship with good men

(sappurisa-s.) comes listening to good advice, thereby

faith, thereby wise reflection, thereby mindfulness and

clarity of consciousness, thereby sense-control, thereby

3-fold good conduct, thereby the 4 foundations of

mindfulness (satipaññhàna, q.v), thereby the 7 factors of

enlightenment (bojjhanga, q.v.), thereby liberation

through wisdom (pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.).” Cf. A. X. 62.

samuccheda-pahàna: ‘overcoming by destruction’, is

the absolute extinction of certain fetters of existence

(saüyojana, q.v.), which takes place by entering into

one of the 4 supermundane paths of holiness (s. ariya–

299 –

puggala). – Regarding the 5 kinds of overcoming,

s. pahàna.

samudaya-sacca: ‘truth of the origin’, i.e. the origin of

suffering, is the 2nd of the 4 Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.).

samuññhàna: ‘origination’. There are 4 kinds of origination

of corporeal phenomena, namely: through

karma, consciousness, temperature, nutriment. For

example, ‘karma-produced’ (kamma-s. = kammaja,

karma-born) are the sense organs, sexual characteristics,

etc., which, according to their nature, are conditioned

either through wholesome or unwholesome

karma formations (volitional actions;

s. pañiccasamuppàda, 2) in a previous existence. ‘Mindproduced’,

i.e. consciousness-produced (cittasamuññhàna

= cittaja) are bodily and verbal expression

(vi¤¤atti, q.v.). For a detailed exposition, see

Vis.M. XX. – (App.).

saüvara-padhàna: ‘effort to avoid’; s. padhàna.

saüvara-sãla: ‘indriya-s.’; s. sãla.

saüvara-suddhi: ‘purity of control’, is another name

for morality consisting of restraint of the senses

(indriya-saüvara-sãla; s. sãla).

saüvañña-kappa: s. kappa.

saüvega-vatthu: ‘the sources of emotion’, or of a

sense of urgency, are 8: “birth, old age, disease, death,

being 4; the suffering in the lower states of existence

being the 5th; further, the misery of the past rooted in

the cycle of rebirth, the misery of the future rooted in

– 300 –

the cycle of rebirth, the misery of the present rooted in

the search after food” (Vis.M. III.).

saüvejanãya-ññhàna: ‘places rousing emotion’, are 4:

the place where the Perfect One was born, (i.e. the

Lumbini-grove near Kapilavatthu, at the present

frontier of Nepal); the place where he reached Full

Enlightenment (i.e. Uruvela, the modern Ureli, and

Buddhagayà, on the Nera¤jara-river; the modern

Lilanja); the place where he, for the first time, unveiled

the Dhamma to the world (i.e. the deer-park at Isipatana

near Benares); the place where he entered the

final Nibbàna (i.e. Kusinàra). (A. IV, 118).

saüyojana: ‘fetters’. There are 10 fetters tying beings

to the wheel of existence, namely: (1) personalitybelief

(sakkàya-diññhi, q.v.), (2) sceptical doubt

(vicikicchà q.v.), (3) clinging to mere rules and ritual

(sãlabbata-paràmàsa; s. upàdàna), (4) sensuous craving

(kàma-ràga, 4.v.), (5) ill-will (vyàpàda), (6) craving for

fine-material existence (råpa-ràga), (7) craving for

immaterial existence (aråpa-ràga), (8) conceit

(màna, q.v.), (9) restlessness (uddhacca, q.v.),

(10) ignorance (avijjà, q.v.). The first five of these are

called ‘lower fetters’ (orambhàgiya-saüyojana), as they

tie to the sensuous world. The latter 5 are called

‘higher fetters’ (uddhambhàgiya-saüyojana), as they tie

to the higher worlds, i.e. the fine-material and immaterial

world (A. IX, 67, 68; X. 13; D. 33, etc.).

He who is free from 1-3 is a Sotàpanna, or Streamwinner,

i.e. one who has entered the stream to

Nibbàna, as it were. He who, besides these 3 fetters, has

– 301 –

overcome 4 and 5 in their grosser form, is called a

Sakadàgàmi, a ‘Once-returner’ (to this sensuous world).

He who is fully freed from 1-5 is an Anàgàmã, or ‘Nonreturner’

(to the sensuous world). He who is freed from

all the 10 fetters is called an Arahat, i.e. a perfectly

Holy One.

For more details, s. ariya-puggala.

The 10 fetters as enumerated in the Abhidhamma,

e.g. Vibh. XVII, are: sensuous craving, ill-will, conceit,

wrong views, sceptical doubt, clinging to mere rules

and ritual, craving for existence, envy, stinginess,

ignorance.

sa¤cetanà = cetanà, q.v.

sangaha-vatthu: the 4 ‘ways of showing favour’ are

liberality, kindly speech, beneficial actions, impartiality

(A. IV, 32; VIII, 24).

sangha (lit.: congregation), is the name for the

Community of Buddhist monks. As the third of the

Three Gems or Jewels (ti-ratana, q.v.) and the Three

Refuges (ti-sarana, q.v.), i.e. Buddha, Dhamma and

Sangha, it applies to the ariya-sangha, the community

of the saints, i.e. the 4 Noble Ones (ariya-pugga, q.v.),

the Stream-winner, etc.

sankappa: ‘thought’, is a synonym of vitakka (q.v.). For

sammà-s., or right thought, s. magga (2).

sankhàra: This term has, according to its context,

different shades of meaning, which should be carefully

distinguished.

– 302 –

(I) To its most frequent usages (s. foll. 1-4) the

general term ‘formation’ may be applied, with the

qualifications required by the context. This term may

refer either to the act of ‘forming or to the passive state

of ‘having been formed’ or to both.

1. As the 2nd link of the formula of dependent

origination, (pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.), sankhàra has the

active aspect, ‘forming, and signifies karma (q.v.),

i.e. wholesome or unwholesome volitional activity

(cetanà) of body (kàya-s.), speech (vacã-s.) or mind

(citta- or mano-s.). This definition occurs, e.g. at

S. XII, 2, 27. For s. in this sense, the word ‘karmaformation’

has been coined by the author. In other

passages, in the same context, s. is defined by reference

to (a) meritorious karma-formations

(pu¤¤’àbhisankhàra), (b) demeritorious k.

(apu¤¤’abhisankhàra), (c) imperturbable k.

(àne¤j’àbhisankhàra), e.g. in S. XII, 51; D. 33. This

threefold division covers karmic activity in all spheres

of existence: the meritorious karma-formations extend

to the sensuous and the fine-material sphere, the

demeritorious ones only to the sensuous sphere, and

the ‘imperturbable’ only to the immaterial sphere.

2. The aforementioned three terms, kàya-, vacã- and

citta-s. are sometimes used in quite a different sense,

namely as (1) bodily function, i.e. in-and-out-breathing

(e.g. M. 10), (2) verbal function, i.e. thought-conception

and discursive thinking, (3) mental-function,

i.e. feeling and perception (e.g. M. 44). See

nirodhasamàpatti.

– 303 –

3. It also denotes the 4th group of existence

(sankhàrakkhandha), and includes all ‘mental formations’

whether they belong to ‘karmically forming’

consciousness or not. See khandha, Tab. II. and

S. XXII, 56, 79.

4. It occurs further in the sense of anything formed

(sankhata, q.v.) and conditioned, and includes all

things whatever in the world, all phenomena of existence.

This meaning applies, e.g. to the well-known

passage, “All formations are impermanent… subject to

suffering” (sabbe sankhàra aniccà… dukkhà). In that

context, however, s. is subordinate to the still wider and

all-embracing term dhamma (thing); for dhamma

includes also the Unformed or Unconditioned Element

(asankhata-dhàtu), i.e. Nibbàna (e.g. in sabbe dhammà

anattà, “all things are without a self”).

(II) Sankhàra also means sometimes ‘volitional

effort’, e.g. in the formula of the roads to power (iddhipàda,

q.v.); in sasankhàra– and asankhàra-parinibbàyã

(s. anàgàmã, q.v.); and in the Abhidhamma terms

asankhàrika- (q.v.) and sasankhàrika-citta, i.e. without

effort = spontaneously, and with effort = prompted.

In Western literature, in English as well as in

German, sankhàra is sometimes mistranslated by

‘subconscious tendencies’ or similarly (e.g. Prof Beckh:

“unterbewußte Bildekräfte,” i.e. subconscious formative

forces). This misinterpretation derives perhaps from a

similar usage in non-Buddhist Sanskrit literature, and is

entirely inapplicable to the connotations of the term in

Pàli Buddhism, as listed above under I, 1-4. For

– 304 –

instance, within the dependent origination, s. is neither

subconscious nor a mere tendency, but is a fully conscious

and active karmic volition. In the context of the

5 groups of existence (s. above I, 3), a very few of the

factors from the group of mental formations (sankhàrakkhandha)

are also present as concomitants of subconsciousness

(s. Tab. I-III), but are of course not restricted

to it, nor are they mere tendencies.

sankhàrupekkhà-¤àõa: the ‘equanimity-knowledge

with regard to the formations of existence’, is one of

those kinds of knowledge which form the ‘purification

by knowledge and vision of the path-progress’

(s. visuddhi, VI, 8). “It is known by 3 names: in the

lowest stage it is called ‘knowledge consisting in the

desire for deliverance’ (muccitu-kamyatà-¤àõa); in the

middle stage it is called the ‘reflecting contemplation’

(pañisankhànupassanà¤àõa); in the last stage, however,

i.e. after attaining the summit, it is called the ‘equanimity-

knowledge with regard to the formations of

existence’ ” (Vis.M. XXI).

sankhata: the ‘formed’, i.e. anything originated or

conditioned, comprises all phenomena of existence.

Cf. sankhàra I, 4; asankhata.

sankhitta citta: in the Satipaññhàna Sutta, signifies the

‘contracted’ or ‘cramped’ mind, not the concentrated

(samàhita) mind, as often translated by Western

authors. Cf. Satipaññhàna (3).

sa¤¤à: 1. ‘perception’, is one of the 5 groups of

existence (khandha, q.v.), and one of the 7 mental

factors (cetasika) that are inseparably bound up with

– 305 –

all consciousness (s. cetanà). It is sixfold as perception

of the 5 physical sense-objects and of mental objects. It

is the awareness of an object’s distinctive marks (“one

perceives blue, yellow, etc.,” S. XXII, 79). If, in repeated

perception of an object, these marks are recognized,

sa¤¤à functions as ‘memory’ (s. Abh. St., p. 68f.).

2. sa¤¤à stands sometimes for consciousness in its

entirety, e.g. in n’eva-sa¤¤à-n’àsa¤¤àyatana, ‘the realm

of neither-perception-nor- non-perception’; further, in

asa¤¤à-satta, ‘unconscious beings’. In both cases

reference is not to ‘perception’ alone, but also to all

other constituents of consciousness. Cf. D. 9.

3. sa¤¤à may also refer to the ‘ideas’, which are

objects of meditation, e.g. in a group of 7 ideas, of

impermanence (anicca-s.), etc. (A. VII, 46); of 10:

impurity (asubha-s.), etc. (A. X, 56), and another set of

10 in A. X. 60; or to wrong notions, as in nicca-, subha-s.

(the notion of permanence, beauty), etc.

sa¤¤à-vedayita-nirodha = nirodha-samàpatti (q.v.).

sa¤¤à-vipallàsa: ‘perversion of perception’

(s. vipallàsa).

sa¤¤ojana = saüyojana (q.v.).

santàna = santati: ‘continuity’, may refer to the continuity

of consciousness (citta-s.), of the groups of existence

(khandha-s.), of sub-consciousness (bhavanga-s.),

of corporeality (råpa-s.), to the uninterrupted

continuity of the pañiccasamuppàda (q.v.), etc. (App.).

– 306 –

santãraõa-citta: ‘investigating consciousness’, is one of

the stages in the cognitive series. For the 14 functions of

consciousness. s. vi¤¤àõakicca.

santuññhità: ‘contentedness’; s. ariya-vaüsa.

sapadànik’anga: s. dhutanga.

sappañigha-råpa: ‘corporeality reacting to sense

stimuli’, refers to the 5 sense-organs (àyatana, q.v.). –

Cf. Vibh. II (s. Guide II, Chap. II) and Vis.M. XIV;

further s. pañigha 2.

sarana: s. ti-saraõa.

sàsana (lit. ‘message’): the Dispensation of the

Buddha, the Buddhist religion; teaching, doctrine.

Navanga-Buddha (or satthu)-sàsana, the ninefold

Dispensation of the Buddha (or the Master) consists of

suttas (sutta), mixed prose (geyya), exegesis

(veyyàkaraõa), verses (gàthà), solemn utterances

(udàna), sayings of the Blessed One (itivuttaka), birth

stories (jàtaka), extraordinary things (abbhutadhamma),

and analysis (vedalla). This classification is

often found in the suttas (e.g. M. 22). According to the

commentaries, also the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma

Piñaka are comprised in that ninefold division (see

Atthasàlini Tr., I, 33). It is a classification according to

literary styles, and not according to given texts or

books.

sasankhàra-parinibbàyã: ‘one who reaches Nibbàna

with exertion’, is a name of one of the 5 kinds of Nonreturners

(anàgàmã, q.v.).

– 307 –

sasankhàrika-citta (in Dhs.: sasankhàrena): a

prepared, or prompted. state of consciousness, arisen

after prior deliberation (e.g. weighing of motives) or

induced by others (command, advice, persuasion) –

See Tab. I; exemplified in Vis.M. XIV, 84f. – Opposite:

asankhàrika-citta, q.v.

sassata-diññhi (-vàda): ‘eternity-belief’, is the belief in

a soul or personality existing independently of the

5 groups of existence, and continuing after death eternally,

as distinguished from the ‘annihilation-belief’

(uccheda-diññhi), i.e. the belief in a personality falling at

death a prey to absolute annihilation. For more details,

s. diññhi.

sati: ‘mindfulness’, is one of the 5 spiritual faculties and

powers (s. bala), one of the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.), and the 7th link of the 8-fold Path

(magga, q.v.), and is, in its widest sense, one of those

mental factors inseparably associated with all karmically

wholesome (kusala, q.v.) and karma-produced

lofty (sobhana) consciousness (Cf. Tab. II). – For the

4 foundations of mindfulness s. foll.

satipaññhàna: the 4 ‘foundations of mindfulness’,

lit. ‘awarenesses of mindfulness’ (sati-upaññhàna), are:

contemplation of body, feeling, mind and mind-objects.

– For sati, s. prec.

A detailed treatment of this subject, so important

for the practice of Buddhist mental culture, is given in

the 2 Satipaññhàna Suttas (D. 22; M. 10), which at the

start as well as the conclusion, proclaim the weighty

words: “The only way that leads to the attainment of

– 308 –

purity, to the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, to

the end of pain and grief, to the entering of the right

path, and to the realization of Nibbàna is the 4 foundations

of mindfulness.”

After these introductory words, and upon the question

which these 4 are, it is said that the monk dwells in

contemplation of the body, the feelings, the mind, and

the mind-objects, “ardent, clearly conscious and

mindful, after putting away worldly greed and grief.”

These 4 contemplations are in reality not to be

taken as merely separate exercises, but on the contrary,

at least in many cases, especially in the absorptions, as

things inseparably associated with each other. Thereby

the Satipaññhàna Sutta forms an illustration of the way

in which these 4 contemplations relating to the

5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.) simultaneously

come to be realized, and finally lead to insight into the

impersonality of all existence.

(1) The contemplation of the body

(kàyanupassanà) consists of the following exercises:

mindfulness with regard to in-and-outbreathing

(ànàpànasati, q.v.), minding the 4 postures

(iriyàpatha, q.v.), mindfulness and clarity of consciousness

(satisampaja¤¤a, q.v.), reflection on the 32 parts

of the body (s. kàyagatàsati and asubha), analysis of

the 4 physical elements (dhàtuvavatthàna, q.v.),

cemetery meditations (sãvathikà q.v.).

(2) All feelings (vedanànupassanà) that arise in the

meditator he clearly perceives, namely: agreeable and

disagreeable feeling of body and mind, sensual and

super-sensual feeling, indifferent feeling.

– 309 –

(3) He further clearly perceives and understands

any state of consciousness or mind (cittànupassanà),

whether it is greedy or not, hateful or not, deluded or

not, cramped or distracted, developed or undeveloped,

surpassable or unsurpassable, concentrated or unconcentrated,

liberated or unliberated.

(4) Concerning the mind-objects (dhammànupassanà),

he knows whether one of the five hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.) is present in him or not, knows how it

arises, how it is overcome, and how in future it does no

more arise. He knows the nature of each of the five

groups (khandha, q.v.), how they arise, and how they

are dissolved. He knows the 12 bases of all mental

activity (àyatana q.v.): the eye and the visual object,

the ear and the audible object,… mind and mindobject,

he knows the fetters (saüyojana, q.v.) based on

them, knows how they arise, how they are overcome,

and how in future they do no more arise. He knows

whether one of the seven factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.) is present in him or not, knows how it

arises, and how it comes to full development. Each of

the Four Noble Truths (sacca, q.v.) he understands

according to reality.

The 4 contemplations comprise several exercises,

but the Satipaññhàna should not therefore be thought of

as a mere collection of meditation subjects, any one of

which may be taken out and practised alone. Though

most of the exercises appear also elsewhere in the

Buddhist scriptures, in the context of this sutta they are

chiefly intended for the cultivation of mindfulness and

insight, as indicated by the repetitive passage conclud-

310 –

ing each section of the sutta (see below). The 4 contemplations

cover all the 5 groups of existence

(khandha, q.v.), because mindfulness is meant to encompass

the whole personality. Hence, for the full

development of mindfulness, the practice should extend

to all 4 types of contemplation, though not every

single exercise mentioned under these four headings

need be taken up. A methodical practice of Satipaññhàna

has to start with one of the exercises out of

the group ‘contemplation of the body’, which will serve

as the primary and regular subject of meditation: The

other exercises of the group and the other contemplations

are to be cultivated when occasion for them

arises during meditation and in everyday life.

After each contemplation it is shown how it finally

leads to insight-knowledge: “Thus with regard to his

own body he contemplates the body, with regard to the

bodies of others he contemplates the body, with regard

to both he contemplates the body. He beholds how the

body arises and how it passes away, beholds the arising

and passing away of the body. ‘A body is there’ (but no

living being, no individual, no woman, no man, no self,

nothing that belongs to a self; neither a person, nor

anything belonging to a person; Com.): thus he has established

his attentiveness as far as it serves his knowledge

and mindfulness, and he lives independent, unattached

to anything in the world.’’

In the same way he contemplates feeling, mind and

mind-objects.

In M. 118 it is shown how these four foundations of

mindfulness may be brought about by the exercise of

– 311 –

mindfulness on in-and-out breathing (ànàpànasati,

q.v.).

Literature: The Way of Mindfulness, tr. of Sutta and

Com., by Soma Thera (3rd ed; Kandy 1967, BPS). –

The Heart of Buddhist Meditation, by Nyanaponika Thera

(3rd ed.; London. Rider & Co.). The Foundations of

Mindfulness (tr. of M. 10), Nyanasatta Thera (Wheel 19).

The Satipaññhàna Sutta and its Application to Modern Life,

V. F. Gunaratna (Wheel 60). – The Power of Mindfulness by

Nyanaponika Thera (Wheel 121/122).

sati-sambojjhanga: ‘mindfulness as factor of

enlightenment’ s. bojjhanga.

sati-sampaja¤¤a: ‘mindfulness and clarity of

consciousness, s. sampaja¤¤a.

satta: ‘living being’. This term, just like attà, puggala,

jãva, and all the other terms denoting ‘ego-entity’, is to

be considered as a merely conventional term (vohàravacana),

not possessing any reality-value. For the

impersonality of all existence. s. anattà, paramattha,

puggala, jãva, satta, pañiccasamuppàda.

sattakkhattu-parama: ‘one with only 7 further

rebirths at the utmost’, is one of the 3 kinds of Streamwinners

(sotàpanna, q.v.).

sattàvàsa, nava: ‘abodes of beings’. In the sutta-texts

(e.g. D. 33; A.IX, 24) 9 such abodes are mentioned:

“There are, O monks, 9 abodes of beings, namely:

(1) “There are beings who are different in body

and different in perception, such as the human beings,

some heavenly beings, and some beings living in the

world of suffering (vinipàtika, q.v.).

– 312 –

(2) “There are beings who are different in body but

equal in perception, such as the first-born gods of the

Brahma-world (i.e. at the beginning of each new worldformation;

s. deva II).

(3) “There are beings who are equal in body but

different in perception, such as the Radiant Gods

(àbhassara, s. deva II).

(4) “There are beings who are equal in body and

equal in perception, such as the All-Illuminating Gods

(subha-kinha; s. deva II).

(5) “There are beings without perception and

feeling, such as the unconscious beings (asa¤¤asatta,

q.v.).

(6) “There are beings who, through the complete

overcoming of perceptions of matter (råpa-sa¤¤a), the

disappearance of perceptions of sense-reaction

(pañigha-sa¤¤a), and the non-attention to perceptions

of variety thinking: ‘Boundless is space’, are reborn in

the sphere of boundless space (s. deva, III; jhàna, 5).

(7) “There are beings who, through the complete

overcoming of the sphere of boundless space, thinking:

‘Boundless is consciousness’, are reborn in the sphere of

boundless consciousness (s. jhàna 6).

(8) “There are beings who, through the complete

overcoming of the sphere of boundless consciousness,

thinking: ‘Nothing is there, are reborn in the sphere of

nothingness (s. jhàna, 7).

(9) “There are beings who, through the complete

overcoming of the sphere of nothingness, are reborn in

the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception

(s. jhàna, 8)” (A. IX, 24).

– 313 –

According to the Com. to A., the beings of the Pure

Abodes (suddhàvàsa, q.v.) are not mentioned here, for

the reason that they exist only in those world-periods in

which Buddhas appear. Cf. vi¤¤àõa-ññhiti.

Sa-upàdisesa-nibbàna: s. nibbàna, upàdi.

sàvaka: ‘hearer’, i.e. ‘disciple’, refers, in a restricted

sense (then mostly ariya-sàvaka, ‘noble disciple’), only

to the 8 kinds of noble disciples (ariya-puggala, q.v.).

sàvaka-bodhi: ‘enlightenment of the disciple’, designates

the holiness of the disciple, as distinguished from

the holiness of the Pacceka-Buddha (q.v.) and the

Sammà-sambuddha (q.v.).

sceptical doubt: vicikicchà (q.v.). Cf. kankhà.

scruples: kukkucca (q.v.).

sekha: a ‘noble learner’, a disciple in higher training,

i.e. one who pursues the 3 kinds of training

(sikkhà, q.v.), is one of those 7 kinds of noble disciples

who have reached one of the 4 supermundane paths or

the 3 lower fruitions (s. ariya-puggala), while the one

possessed of the 4th fruition, or Arahatta-phala, is

called ‘one beyond training’ (asekha, lit. ‘no more

learner’). The worldling (puthujjana, q.v.) is called

‘neither a noble learner, nor perfected in learning’

(n’eva-sekha-nàsekha). Cf. Pug. 23-25.

self: attà (q.v.).

self-annihilation, craving for: vibhava-taõhà

(s. taõhà).

– 314 –

self-confidence: vesàrajja (q.v.).

self-mortification: atta-kilamatha (q.v.).

senàsana: ‘dwelling place’, is one of the 4 requisites of

the monk’s life (s. sãla 4). To be suitable for spiritual

training, it should possess 5 advantages. As it is said

(A. X, 11): “But how, O monks, does the dwelling place

possess 5 advantages? Such a dwelling place is not too

far, nor too near (to the village), is suitable for going

(on almsround) and returning. In the daytime it is not

much crowded, and at night without noise and bustle.

One is not much molested there by gadflies, mosquitoes,

wind, sun and creeping things. While living there,

the monk without difficulty obtains robes, almsfood,

dwelling, and the necessary medicines. There are elder

monks living there, with great learning, well versed in

the Message, masters of the Law (dhamma), of the

Discipline (vinaya) and of the Tables of Contents

(i.e. either the twofold Abhidhamma Matrix, or the

Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni Pàtimokkha; s. pàtimokkha).

And he approaches them from time to time, questions

them, asks them for explanations, etc.

sense-organs and objects: s. àyatana, dhàtu.

sense-stimuli, corporeality responding to: s. àyatana.

sensitive corporeality: pasàda-råpa (q.v.).

sensuality (subj. & obj.): kàma (q.v.).

sensuous clinging: kàmåpàdàna; s. upàdàna.

– 315 –

sensuous craving: kàma-taõhà (-ràga), is one of the

10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.), and one of the 3 kinds of

craving (taõhà, q.v.).

sensuous sphere (-world): s. avacara, loka.

serenity: s. samatha.

seven rebirths at the utmost: s. sotàpanna.

sex: s. bhàva.

sexual intercourse, unlawful: s. kàmesu micchàcàra.

shame: hiri (q.v.).

shamelessness: ahirika (q.v.).

signless (animitta): s. ceto-vimutti, vimokkha,

vipassanà.

sikkhà: the ‘training’, which the Buddha’s disciple has

to undergo, is 3-fold: training in higher morality

(adhisãla-sikkhà), in higher mentality (adhicittasikkhà),

and in higher wisdom (adhipa¤¤à-sikkhà). This

3-fold training refers to the 3-fold division of the 8-fold

Path (magga, q.v.) in morality, concentration and wisdom

(sãla, samàdhi, pa¤¤à). In D. 16 and A.IV,1 it is

said:

“It is through not understanding, not penetrating

noble morality… noble concentration… noble

wisdom… noble deliverance that I, as well as you, have

had for such a long time to pass through this round of

rebirths.’’

“This then is morality, this concentration, this

wisdom, this deliverance. Being endowed with

– 316 –

morality, concentration brings high fruit and blessing.

Being endowed with concentration, wisdom brings high

fruit and blessing. Being endowed with wisdom, the

mind becomes freed from all cankers (àsava q.v.)

namely, from the sensuous canker (kàmàsava), from

the canker of existence (bhavasava) from the canker of

opinions (diññhisava) from the canker of ignorance

(avijjàsava).

sikkhàpada: ‘steps of training’, moral rules.

The 5 moral rules, also called pa¤ca-sãla which are

binding on all Buddhist laymen, are: (1) abstaining

from killing any living being, (2) from stealing,

(3) from unlawful sexual intercourse, (4) from lying,

(5) from the use of intoxicants.(s. suràmeraya etc.)

The 10 rules (dasa-sãla) are binding on all novices

and monks, namely: (1) abstaining from killing,

(2) from stealing, (3) from unchastity, (4) from lying,

(5) from the use of intoxicants, (6) from eating after

midday, (7) from dancing, singing, music and shows,

(8) from garlands, scents, cosmetics and adornments,

etc., (9) from luxurious beds, (10) from accepting gold

and silver.

In the 8 rules (attha-sãla) which on full and new

moon days, and on the first and last quarter of the

moon, are observed by many lay-followers

(upàsaka, q.v.), the 7th and 8th of the above 10 rules

are fused into one as the 7th rule, while the 9th

becomes the 8th.

sãla: ‘morality’, ‘virtue’, is a mode of mind and volition

(cetana, q.v.) manifested in speech or bodily action

(s. karma). It is the foundation of the whole Buddhist

– 317 –

practice, and therewith the first of the 3 kinds of training

(sikkhà, q.v.) that form the 3-fold division of the

8-fold Path (s. magga), i.e. morality, concentration and

wisdom.

Buddhist morality is not, as it may appear from the

negative formulations in the Sutta-texts, something

negative. And it does not consist in the mere not committing

of evil actions, but is in each instance the clearly

conscious and intentional restraint from the bad actions

in question and corresponds to the simultaneously

arising volition.

Morality of the 8-fold Path, namely, right speech,

right action and right livelihood, is called ‘genuine or

natural morality’ pakatisãla), as distinguished from the

external rules for monks or laymen, the so-called

‘prescribed morality’ (pa¤¤atti-sãla, q.v.), which, as

such, is karmically neutral.

“What now is karmically wholesome morality

(kusala-sãla)? It is the wholesome bodily action (kàyakamma,

s. karma), wholesome verbal action (vacãkamma,

s. karma), and also the purity with regard to

livelihood which I call morality” (M. 78).

Cf. magga, 3-5.

For the 5, 8 and 10 rules, s. sikkhàpada. Further

cf. càritta- and vàritta-sãla.

The 4 kinds of morality consisting of purification

(catupàrisuddhi-sãla) are: (1) restraint with regard to

the monks’ Disciplinary Code, (2) restraint of the

senses, (3) purification of livelihood, (4) morality with

regard to the 4 requisites (of the monk).

– 318 –

(1) Restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code

(pàtimokkha-saüvara-sãla). “Here the monk is restrained

in accordance with the monks’ Disciplinary Code, is

perfect in conduct and behaviour, and perceiving danger

even in the least offences, he trains himself in the

rules he has taken upon him” (A. V, 87, 109, 114, etc.).

(2) Restraint of the senses (indriya-saüvara-sãla).

“Whenever the monk perceives a form with the eye, a

sound with the ear, an odour with the nose, a taste with

the tongue, an impression with the body, an object with

the mind, he neither adheres to the appearance as a

whole, nor to its parts. And he strives to ward off that

through which evil and unwholesome things, greed and

sorrow, would arise, if he remained with unguarded

senses; and he watches over his senses, restrains his

senses” (M. 38).

(3) Purification of livelihood (àjãva-pàrisuddhisãla).

It consists therein that the monk does not acquire

his livelihood in a way unbefitting to a monk.

(4) Morality with regard to the 4 requisites

(paccaya-sannissita-sãla). It consists therein that the

monk is guided by the right mental attitude when making

use of the 4 requisites: robes, almsfood, dwelling

and medicine. “Wisely reflecting he makes use of his

robes… merely to protect himself against cold and

heat, etc. Wisely reflecting he makes use of his almsfood…

merely as a prop and support to this body….

Wisely reflecting he makes use of his dwelling… merely

to keep off the dangers of weather and to enjoy solitude….

Wisely reflecting he makes use of the necessary

– 319 –

medicines, merely to suppress feelings of sickness that

arise, and to reach perfect freedom from suffering”

(cf. M. 2).

About these 4 kinds of morality, Vis.M. I gives a

detailed exposition.

sãlabbata-paràmàsa and –upàdàna: ‘attachment (or

clinging) to mere rules and ritual’, is the 3rd of the

10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.), and one of the 4 kinds of

clinging (upàdàna, q.v.). It disappears on attaining to

Stream-entry (sotàpatti). For definition, s. upàdàna.

sãla-samàdhi-pa¤¤à: s. sikkhà, magga.

silent buddha: pacceka-buddha (q.v.).

sitting position, sleeping in: s. dhutanga.

sãvathikà: ‘cemetery contemplations’, as described in

D. 22 and M. 10, have as their objects a corpse one or

two or three days old, swollen up, blue-black in colour,

full of corruption; a corpse eaten by crows, etc.; a

framework of bones; flesh hanging from it, bespattered

with blood, held together by the sinews; without flesh

and blood, but still held together by the sinews; bones

scattered in all direction; bleached and resembling

shells; heaped together after the lapse of years; weathered

and crumbled to dust. At the end of each of these

contemplations there follows the conclusion: “This

body of mine also has this nature, has this destiny, cannot

escape it.” Similar are the 10 objects of loathsomeness

(asubha q.v.).

skilful: kusala (q.v.).

– 320 –

sloth: middha, s. nãvaraõa.

sobhana: ‘lofty’, beautiful, pure, are called, in Abh. S.,

all states of consciousness excepting the unwholesome

and those without roots (ahetuka). Sobhana-sàdhàraõa

are called the mental factors (cetasika) common to all

lofty consciousness; s. Tab. II.

somanassa: lit ‘glad-minded-ness’ (su+ manas+ ya),

gladness, joy; identical with ‘mentally agreeable feeling’

(cetasikà sukhà vedanà), belongs to the feelinggroup

(vedanà-kkhandha, s. khandha II), and is enumerated

amongst the 22 faculties (indriya, q.v.). It may

or may not be associated with karmically wholesome

consciousness (s. Tab. I. 1-4, 9-12, 18-21), with karmically

unwholesome consciousness (greedy c. ib. 22-25),

and with karmically neutral consciousness (ib. 40,

42-45, 57-60, 66-69, 72-76, 81-84), – Somanassa is not

identical with pãti (q.v.).

somanassåpavicàra: ‘indulging in gladness’; s. manopavicàra.

something: ki¤cana (q.v.).

sotàpanna: the ‘Stream-winner’, is the lowest of the

8 noble disciples (s. ariya-puggala). Three kinds are to

be distinguished: the one ‘with 7 rebirths at the utmost’

(sattakkhattu-parama), the one ‘passing from one noble

family to another’ (kolankola), the one ‘germinating

only once more’ (eka-bãjã). As it is said (e.g. Pug. 37-39;

A. III, 87):

(1) “If a man, after the disappearance of the

3 fetters (personality-belief, sceptical doubt, attach-

321 –

ment to rules and ritual; s. saüyojana), has entered the

stream (to Nibbàna), he is no more subject to rebirth in

lower worlds, is firmly established, destined to full

enlightenment. After having passed amongst the heavenly

and human beings only seven times more through

the round of rebirths, he puts an end to suffering. Such

a man is called ‘one with 7 births at the utmost’

(sattakkhattu-parama).

(2) “If a man, after the disappearance of the

3 fetters,… is destined to full enlightenment, he, after

having passed among noble families two or three times

through the round of rebirths, puts an end to suffering.

Such a man is called ‘one passing from one noble

family to another’ (kolankola).

(3) “If a man, after the disappearance of the

3 fetters,… is destined to full enlightenment, he, after

having only once more returned to human existence,

puts an end to suffering. Such a man is called ‘one

germinating only once more’ (eka-bãjã). See Sotàpatti-

Saüyutta (S. LV).

sotàpannassa angàni: the ‘characteristic qualities of a

Stream-winner’ are 4: unshakable faith towards the

Enlightened One, unshakable faith towards the

Doctrine, unshakable faith towards the Order, and

perfect morality. Explained in S. LV, I, D. 33, in

S. XLVII, 8 and in Netti-ppakaraõa these 4 qualities are

called sotàpattiyanga (q.v.).

sotàpatti: ‘Stream-entry’; s. sotàpanna; s. -magga,

-phala, ‘path and fruition of Stream-entry’;

s. ariyapuggala.

– 322 –

sotàpattiyanga: the 4 (preliminary) ‘conditions to

Stream-entry’ are: companionship with good persons,

hearing the Good Law, wise reflection, living in

conformity with the Law (S. LV, 5; D. 33).

Cf. sotàpannassa angàni.

space: s. àkàsa.

spheres (of existence): avacara (q.v.). – The

4 immaterial spheres (àyatana): s. jhàna (5-8).

spiritual faculties: s. indriya (15-19), indriya-samatta,

bala.

spontaneously born beings: opapàtika (q.v.).

stains, the 3: mala (q.v.).

standstill (of morality etc.): s. hàna-bhàgiya-sãla. S. of

existence: vivañña (q.v.).

stinginess: macchariya (q.v.); cf. Tab. II.

stored-up karma: kañattà; s. karma.

stream-entry: s. sotàpanna, ariya-puggala.

streams of merit: pu¤¤adhàrà (q.v.).

stream-winner: s. sotàpanna, ariya-puggala.

stupid-natured: s. carita.

subconscious stream (of existence): bhavangasota

(q.v.).

subha-kiõha (or –kiõõa): s. deva, II.

– 323 –

subha-nimitta: ‘beautiful (or attractive) object of

mind’; it may become an inducement to the arising of

sense-desire (kàmacchanda; s. nãvaraõa): “No other

thing do I know, O monks, through which in such a

degree sense-desire may arise, and once arisen will

continue to grow, as an attractive object. Whoso does

not wisely consider an attractive object, in him sensedesire

will arise, and once arisen will continue to grow”

(A. I, 2).

subha-sa¤¤à, -citta, -diññhi: ‘the perception (consciousness

or view) of beauty (or purity)’ in what is

actually devoid of it (asubhe subha-sa¤¤à), is one of the

4 perversions (vipallàsa, q.v.).

sublime abodes (or States): brahma-vihàra (q.v.).

substrata of existence: upadhi (q.v.).

sucarita: ‘good conduct’, is 3-fold, in body, speech and

mind, and comprises the 10 wholesome courses of

action (s. kammapatha). According to A. X, 61, it has

sense-control as its condition. See D. 33, A. II, 17; III, 2.

successive births, karma ripening in: s. karma.

suchness: tathatà (q.v.).

sudassa, sudassã: s. foll.

suddhàvàsa: the ‘Pure Abodes’, are a group of

5 heavens belonging to the fine-material world (råpaloka,

s. loka), where only the Non-returners

(s. anàgàmã, q.v.) are reborn, and in which they attain

Arahatship and Nibbàna (ariya-puggala). The names of

– 324 –

the inhabitants of these Pure Abodes are: âviha,

âtappa, Sudassa, Sudassã, Akaniññha. Cf. anàgàmã.

suddha-vipassanà-yànika = sukkha-vipassaka (q.v.).

suffering: For the 4 Truths of suffering, s. sacca; further

s. ti-lakkhaõa.

sugati: ‘happy course of existence’; s. gati.

sukha: pleasant, happy; happiness, pleasure, joy, bliss.

It is one of the three feelings (s. vedanà) and may be

either bodily or mental. The texts distinguish between

the happiness of the senses and the h. of renunciation

(A. II), worldly (carnal; sàmisa) and unworldly (noncarnal;

niràmisa) happiness (M. 10). See A. II, ch. VIII.

– Happiness is an indispensable condition for attaining

concentration of mind (samàdhi, q.v.), and therefore it

is one of the 5 factors (or constituents) of the 1st

absorption (jhànanga; s. jhàna) and is present up to the

3rd absorption inclusively. “The mind of the happy one

has concentration as its fruit and reward” (A.X,1). – “In

him who is filled with happiness, right concentration

has found a foundation” (A.X,3).

sukha-sa¤¤à, -citta, -diññhi: ‘the perception (consciousness

or view) of happiness’ in what is actually

suffering (dukkhe sukha-sa¤¤à), i.e. any form of

existence, it is one of the perversions (vipallàsa, q.v.).

sukkha-vipassaka: ‘one supported by bare insight’, is

the commentarial term for one who, without having

attained any of the meditative absorptions (jhàna, q.v.),

has realized only by the support of insight

(vipassanà, q.v.) one or several of the supermundane

– 325 –

paths (s. ariyapuggala). In Vis.M. XVIII, he is called

suddha-vipassanà-yànika, as distinguished from ‘one

who has tranquillity as vehicle’ (samathayànika, q.v.).

Though the primary meaning of sukkha as intended

here is as stated above, subcommentaries (e.g. D. Tãkà)

employ also the literal meaning of sukkha, i.e. ‘dry’:

“His insight is dry, rough, unmoistened by the moisture

of tranquillity meditation.” This justifies a frequent

rendering of this term by ‘dry-visioned’ or ‘having dry

insight’, which, however, should not lead to misconceptions

about the nature of insight meditation as being

‘dry’ or ‘merely intellectual’, while in fact the development

of insight will produce rapture (pãti) and a sense

of urgency (saüvega) in the meditator. – (App.).

su¤¤a (adj.), su¤¤atà (noun): void (ness), empty

(emptiness). As a doctrinal term it refers, in Theravàda,

exclusively to the anattà doctrine, .i.e. the unsubstantiality

of all phenomena: “Void is the world… because it

is void of a self and anything belonging to a self”

(su¤¤am attena và attaniyena và; S. XXXV, 85); also

stated of the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.) in

the same text. See also M. 43, M. 106. – In CNidd.

(quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 55), it is said: “Eye… mind,

visual objects… mind-objects, visual consciousness…

mind-consciousness, corporeality… consciousness, etc.,

are void of self and anything belonging to a self; void

of permanency and of anything lasting, eternal or

immutable.. They are coreless: without a core of

permanency, or core of happiness or core of self.” – In

M. 121, the voiding of the mind of the cankers, in the

attainment of Arahatship, is regarded as the “fully

purified and incomparably highest (concept of)

– 326 –

voidness. – See Sn. v. 1119; M. 121; M. 122

(Wheel 87); Pts.M. II: Su¤¤a-kathà; Vis.M. XXI, 53ff.

su¤¤atànupassanà: ‘contemplation of emptiness’

(s. prec.), is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(vipassanà, q.v.). Cf. Vis.M. XXI.

su¤¤atà-vimokkha: ‘emptiness-deliverance’;

s. vimokkha.

superiority-conceit: s. màna.

supermundane: lokuttara (q.v.); -faculties, s. indriya

(20-22).

supernormal: mahaggata (q.v.); -knowledges,

s. abhi¤¤à.

support, decisive support: (nissaya, upanissaya) are

two of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya).

supportive karma: upatthambhaka-kamma; s. karma.

suppressive karma: upapãlaka-kamma; s. karma.

suràmeraya-majja-ppamàdaññhànà veramaõã

sikkhàpadaü samàdiyàmi: “I take upon myself the

vow to abstain from taking intoxicants and drugs such

as wine, liquor, etc. since they lead to moral carelessness.”

This is the wording of the last of the 5 moral

rules (s. sikkhàpada) binding on all Buddhists.

susànik’anga: s. dhutanga.

suta-mayà pa¤¤à: ‘knowledge based on learning’;

s. pa¤¤à.

– 327 –

T

tadanga-pahàna: ‘overcoming by the opposite’, is one

of the 5 kinds of overcoming (pahàna, q.v.).

tadàrammana-citta: ‘registering consciousness’

(s. Tab. I, 40-49, 56), is the last stage in the complete

process of cognition (citta-vãthi) immediately before

sinking into the subconscious. It does not occur with the

consciousness of the absorptions nor with supermundane

consciousness, but only with large or distinct

objects of the sensuous sphere. Cf. vi¤¤àõa-kicca.

taints: àsava (q.v.).

talk, low: tiracchàna-kathà (q.v.).

taõhà: (lit. ‘thirst’): ‘craving’, is the chief root of suffering,

and of the ever-continuing cycle of rebirths. “What,

O monks, is the origin of suffering? It is that craving

which gives rise to ever-fresh rebirth and, bound up

with pleasure and lust, now here, now there, finds ever

fresh delight. It is the sensual craving (kàma-taõhà), the

craving for existence (bhava-taõhà), the craving for

non-existence (vibhava-taõhà)’’ (D. 22). T. is the 8th

link in the formula of the dependent origination

(pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.). Cf. sacca.

Corresponding to the 6 sense-objects, there are

6 kinds of craving: craving for visible objects, for

sounds, odours, tastes, bodily impressions, mental

impressions (råpa-, sadda-, gandha-, rasa-, phoññhabba-,

dhamma-taõhà). (M. 9; D. 15)

– 328 –

Corresponding to the 3-fold existence, there are

3 kinds: craving for sensual existence (kàma-taõhà), for

fine-material existence (råpa-taõhà), for immaterial

existence (aråpa-taõhà). (D. 33)

There are 18 ‘thought-channels of craving’ (taõhàvicarita)

induced internally, and 18 induced externally;

and as occurring in past, present and future, they

total 108; see A. IV, 199; Vibh., Ch. 17

(Khuddakavatthu-Vibhanga).

According to the dependent origination, craving is

conditioned by feeling; on this see D. 22 (section on the

2nd Truth).

Of craving for existence (bhava-taõhà) it is said

(A. X, 62): “No first beginning of the craving for existence

can be perceived, O monks, before which it was

not and after which it came to be. But it can he perceived

that craving for existence has its specific condition.

I say, O monks, that also craving for existence has

its condition that feeds it (sàharaü) and is not without

it. And what is it? ‘Ignorance’, one has to reply.” –

Craving for existence and ignorance are called “the

outstanding causes that lead to happy and unhappy

destinies (courses of existence)” (s. Vis.M. XVII, 36-42).

The most frequent synonyms of taõhà are

ràga (q.v.) and lobha (s. måla).

taõhà-kkhaya: ‘extinction of craving’, is identical with

‘extinction of cankers’ (àsavakkhaya) and the attainment

of perfect Holiness or Arahatship. Cf. ariyapuggala.

– 329 –

taõhà-nissita-sãla: ‘morality based on craving’

(s. nissaya).

tathàgata: the ‘Perfect One’, lit. the one who has ‘thus

gone’, or ‘thus come’, is an epithet of the Buddha used

by him when speaking of himself.

To the often asked questions, whether the Tathàgata

still exists after death, or not, it is said (e.g. S. XXII,

85, 86) that, in the highest sense (paramattha, q.v.) the

Tathàgata cannot, even at lifetime, be discovered, how

much less after death, and that neither the 5 groups of

existence (khandha, q.v.) are to be regarded as the

Tathàgata, nor can the Tathàgata be found outside

these corporeal and mental phenomena. The meaning

intended here is that there exist only these ever-changing

corporeal and mental phenomena, arising and vanishing

from moment to moment, but no separate entity,

no personality.

When the commentaries in this connection explain

Tathàgata by ‘living being’ (satta), they mean to say

that here the questioners are using the merely conventional

expression, Tathàgata, in the sense of a really

existing entity.

Cf. anattà, paramattha, puggala, jãva, satta.

A commentarial treatise on “The Meaning of the Word

‘Tathàgata’ ” is included in The All-Embracing Net of Views

(Brahmajàla Sutta), tr. Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS).

tathàgata-bala: the ‘ten powers of the Perfect One’;

s. dasa-bala.

– 330 –

tathatà: ‘Suchness’, designates the firmly fixed nature

(bhàva) of all things whatever. The only passage in the

Canon where the word occurs in this sense, is found in

Kath. 186 (s. Guide, p. 83). On the Mahàyana term

tathatà, s. Suzuki, Awakening of Faith, p. 53f. (App.).

tatra-majjhattatà: ‘equanimity, equipoise, mental

balance’ (lit., ‘remaining here and there in the middle’),

is the name for a high ethical quality belonging to the

sankhàra-kkhandha (s. khandha) and is mostly known

by the name upekkhà. In its widest sense it is associated

with all pure consciousness (s. Tab. II). “Tatramajjhattatà

is called the ‘keeping in the middle of all

things’. It has as characteristic that it effects the balance

of consciousness and mental factors; as nature

(function; rasa), that it prevents excessiveness and

deficiency, or that it puts an end to partiality; as manifestation,

that it keeps the proper middle” (Vis.M. XIV).

(App.).

tàvatiüsa: ‘the Thirty-three (Gods)’, a class of

heavenly beings in the sensuous sphere; s. deva (I).

te-cãvarik’anga: ‘practice of the three-rober’, is one of

the ascetical means for purification (dhutanga, q.v.).

tejo-dhàtu: ‘fire-element, heat-element’; s. dhàtu.

tejo-kasiõa: ‘fire-kasina’, is one of the 10 kasina

exercises; s. kasiõa.

temperature: utu (q.v.). – For corporeality produced

by temperature, s. samuññhàna.

tendencies: anusaya (q.v.).

– 331 –

terror, awareness of: one of the insight-knowledges;

s. visuddhi VI. 3.

te-vijja: ‘one endowed with the threefold (higher)

knowledge’. In Brahmanism means ‘knower of the

3 Vedas’ (tri-vidyà), in Buddhism means one who has

realised 3 kinds of knowledge, to wit: remembrance of

former rebirths, the divine eye, extinction of all

cankers. For details, s. abhi¤¤à, 4-6. Cf. Tevijjà Sutta,

D. 13 (Wheel 57/58).

theravàda: ‘Doctrine of the Elders’, is a name of the

oldest form of the Buddha’s teachings, handed down to

us in the Pàli language. According to tradition, its name

is derived from the fact of having been fixed by

500 holy Elders of the Order, soon after the death of

the Master.

Theravàda is the only one of the old schools of

Buddhism that has survived among those which

Mahàyànists have called ‘Hinayàna’. It is sometimes

called Southern Buddhism or Pàli Buddhism. It is found

today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos

and Chittagong (East Bengal.) – Cf. Guide, p. 60. –

(App.).

thãna-middha: ‘sloth and torpor’, constitute the 3rd of

the 5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.). They may or may not,

be associated with greedy consciousness (s. Tab. 23, 25,

27, 29 and II).

thinking, wisdom based on: cintàmayapa¤¤à: s. pa¤¤à.

– 332 –

ñhiti-bhàgiya-sãla, -samàdhi, -pa¤¤à: ‘static morality,

static concentration, static wisdom’; s. hàna-bhàgiyasãla.

thought, thought-conception: s. vitakka.

thought, Right: sammà-sankappa; .s. sacca, magga.

ties, the 4: gantha (q.v.).

ti-hetu-pañisandhika: s. pañisandhi.

ti-lakkhaõa: the ‘3 characteristics of existence’, or

signata, are impermanency (anicca, q.v.), suffering or

misery (dukkha, q.v.; s. sacca, dukkhatà), not-self

(anattà, q.v.).

“Whether Perfect Ones appear in the world, or

whether Perfect Ones do not appear in the world, it still

remains a firm condition, an immutable fact and fixed

law: that all formations are impermanent, that all

formations are subject to suffering, that everything is

without a self’’ (A. III, 134).

“What do you think, O monks: Is corporeality

(råpa) permanent or impermanent? – Impermanent,

O Venerable One. – Are feeling (vedanà), perception

(sa¤¤à), mental formations (sankhàra) and consciousness

(vi¤¤àõa), permanent or impermanent? –

Impermanent, O Venerable One.

“But that which is impermanent, is it something

pleasant or painful? – It is painful, O Venerable One.

– 333 –

“But, of what is impermanent, painful and subject

to change, could it be rightly said, ‘This belongs to me,

this am I, this is my ego’? – No, Venerable One.

“Therefore, whatever there is of corporeality,

feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness,

whether past, present or future, one’s own or

external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, of all

these things one should understand, according to

reality and true wisdom: ‘This does not belong to me,

this am I not, this is not my ego’ ” (S. XXII, 59).

“In one who understands eye, ear, nose, tongue,

body and all the remaining formations as impermanent,

painful and not-self, in him the fetters (saüyojana, q.v.)

are dissolved” (S. XXXV, 53).

It is the full comprehension of the 3 characteristics

by direct meditative experience which constitutes

liberating insight. About their relation to the three

gateways of liberation’, s. vimokkha I.

For further details, s. anicca, dukkha, anattà,

vipassanà.

Literature: The Three Signata, by Prof. O. H. de

A. Wijesekera (Wheel 20). – The Three Basic Facts of

Existence: I-III (Wheel BPS), Vis.M. XX, 13ff, 18ff; XXI,

47f, 67f.

ti-Piñaka: ‘The Three Baskets’, is the name for the

3 main divisions of the Pàli Canon: the Basket of

Discipline (Vinaya Piñaka), the Basket of Discourses

(Sutta Piñaka) and the Basket of Philosophy

(Abhidhamma Piñaka).

– 334 –

tiracchàna-kathà: ‘low talk’, lit. ‘beastly talk’, is the

name in the sutta-texts for the following: “Talk about

kings and robbers, ministers and armies, danger and

war, eating and drinking, clothes and dwellings,

garlands and scents, relations, chariots, villages and

markets, towns and districts, women and heroes, street

talks, talks by the well, talk about those departed in

days gone by, tittle-tattle, talks about world and sea,

about gain and loss” (A.X, 69 etc.).

In the commentaries 4 further kinds are enumerated,

thus bringing the number to 32, as mostly counted,

namely: talk about sensuous enjoyment, self-mortification,

eternity and self-annihilation.

tiracchàna-yoni: ‘animal womb’; birth as animal. The

animal kingdom belongs to the sensuous world

(s. loka), is one of the 4 lower worlds (s. apàya) and

one of the 3 woeful courses of existence (s. gati).

tãrana-pari¤¤à: ‘full understanding by investigating’;

s. pari¤¤à.

ti-ratana: ‘Three Jewels’ or Three Gems, which by all

Buddhists are revered as the most venerable things, are

the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Holy Sangha.’ i.e.:

the Enlightened One; the law of deliverance discovered,

realized and proclaimed by him; and the Community

of Holy Disciples and those who live in accordance

with the Law. – The contemplations of the 3 Jewels

belong to the 10 contemplations (anussati q.v.).

ti-sarana: ‘Threefold Refuge’, in which every faithful

adherent of the Buddha puts his whole trust, consists in

the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha (s. prec.).

– 335 –

The Buddha, or Enlightened One, is the teacher

who by himself has discovered, realized and proclaimed

to the world the law of deliverance. The Dhamma is

the law of deliverance. The Sangha is the community of

the disciples, who have realized or are striving to realize

the law of deliverance.

The 3-fold Refuge in Pàli, by the uttering of which

one may also outwardly profess one’s faith, is still the

same as in the Buddha’s time, namely:

Buddhaü saraõaü gacchàmi

Dhammaü saraõaü gacchàmi

Sanghaü saraõaü gacchàmi

I take my refuge in the Buddha!

I take my refuge in the Dhamma!

I take my refuge in the Sangha!

Literature: The Threefold Refuge by Nyanaponika Thera

(Wheel 76). – Devotion in Buddhism (Wheel 18). Going for

Refuge, by Bhikkhu Bodhi (Wheel 282/284) – Khp. Tr.

pp. 4ff.

titthàyatana: the 3 ‘articles of (heretical) belief’.

which in A. III, 61 are declared as leading to inactivity,

are: (1) the belief that all happiness and woe are

produced through former karma (prenatal actions;

s. karma); (2) that everything is uncaused; (3) that

everything is created by God.

(1) is the teaching of Niggantha-Nàthaputta, the

leader of the Nigganthas, the modern Jains. The fault

with this doctrine is that it does not account for that

happiness and woe which either are the result of the

present life’s good or bad action, or are associated with

– 336 –

the corresponding action. (2) is the doctrine of

Makkhali Gosàla; s. diññhi.

According to the above 3 doctrines, man is not

responsible for his actions, so that all moral exertions

become useless.

torpor: thãna, s. thãna-middha (q.v.).

training, the 3-fold: sikkhà (q.v.). – The steps ofº:

sikkhàpada, (q.v.).

trance: jhàna (q.v.).

tranquillity (of mind): s. samatha, samatha-vipassanà,

bhàvanà, bojjhanga. – ‘One who has taken t. as his

vehicle’: samathayànika (q.v.).

tranquilisation, Overcoming (of defilements) by way

of: s. pahàna.

transference of merit: patti-dàna (q.v.).

transformation, power of: s. iddhi.

transitoriness: anicca (q.v.).

treasures, the 7: s. dhana (q.v.).

tree: Living under a tree is one of the ascetical practices

(dhutanga, q.v.).

truths, the 4 Noble: sacca (q.v.). – 2-fold knowledge of

the t.; s. sacca¤àõa.

turning away, contemplation of the:

vivaññanupassanà; s. vipassanà.

– 337 –

tusita: a class of heavenly beings in the sensuous

plane; s. deva (1).

twin miracle: yamaka-pàñihàriya (q.v.).

– 338 –

U

ubhato-bhàga-vimutta: the ‘both-ways-liberated one’,

is the name of one class of noble disciples (ariyapuggala,

q.v.). He is liberated in 2 ways, namely, by

way of all 8 absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) as well as by the

supermundane path (sotàpatti, etc.) based on insight

(vipassanà, q.v.). In M. 70 it is said:

‘‘Who, O monks, is a both-ways-liberated one? If

someone in his own person has reached the

8 liberations (absorptions), and through wise

penetration the cankers (àsava, q.v.) have become

extinguished, such a one is called a both-ways-liberated

one.’’ Cf. D. 15.

In the widest sense, one is both-ways-liberated if

one has reached one or the other of the absorptions,

and one or the other of the supermundane paths

(cf. A. IX, 44).

The first liberation is also called ‘liberation of mind’

(cetovimutti), the latter liberation through wisdom’

(pa¤¤à-vimutti).

The first liberation, however, is merely temporary,

being a liberation through repression (vikkhambhanavimutti

= vikkhambhana-pahàna: s. pahàna).

uccheda-diññhi: ‘annihilation-view’; s. diññhi.

udayabbayànupassanà-¤àõa: ‘knowledge consisting

in the contemplation of rise and fall’, is the first of the

9 insight-knowledges constituting the purification by

– 339 –

knowledge and vision of the path-progress’. For details,

s. visuddhi, VI. 1.

uddhacca: ‘restlessness’, belongs to the 10 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.), and to the 5 hindrances

(nãvaraõa, q.v.). It is one of those 4 mental factors

inseparably associated with all unwholesome

consciousness (akusala-sàdhàrana, q.v.). Cf. Tab. II.

uddhambhàgiya-saüyojana: the 5 ‘higher fetters’;

s. saüyojana.

uddhaüsota-akaniññhagàmã: ‘passing upstream to

the highest gods’, is one of the 5 kinds of Non-returners

(anàgàmã, q.v.).

uggaha-nimitta: s. nimitta.

ugghañita¤¤u: ‘one who already during a given explanation

comes to penetrate the truth’ (Pug.). This is

one of four types of persons classified according to their

ability of acquiring insight, mentioned in A. IV, 133. Cf.

also vipacita¤¤u, neyya, pada-parama.

See The Requisites of Enlightenment, by Ledi Sayadaw

(Wheel 171/174) p. 1ff.

ujukatà: (kàya-, citta-): ‘uprightness’ (of mental factors

and of consciousness), is associated with all pure consciousness.

Cf. Tab. II.

unconditioned, the: asankhata (q.v.). –

Contemplation of the u. (= animitta); s. vipassanà.

unconscious beings: asa¤¤à-satta (q.v.).

– 340 –

understanding: s. diññhi, ¤àõa, pa¤¤à, pari¤¤à. –

Right u., s. magga (1). Sacca (IV. I).

unit: s. kalàpa, råpa-kalàpa.

unprepared, unprompted: s. asankhàrika-citta.

unshakable deliverance: s. ceto-vimutti.

unshakable one, the: akuppa-dhamma (q.v.).

unthinkable things, the 4: acinteyya (q.v.).

unwholesome, karmically: akusala (q.v.).

upacàra: ‘moment of access’; s. javana.

upacàra-samàdhi: ‘neighbourhood or accessconcentration’,

is the degree of concentration just

before entering any of the absorptions, or jhànas. It still

belongs to the sensuous sphere (kàmàvacara;

s. avacara).

upacaya, råpassa: ‘growth of corporeality’;

s. khandha I; App.

upacchedaka-kamma: ‘destructive karma’; s. karma.

upàdàna: ‘clinging’, according to Vis.M. XVII, is an

intensified degree of craving (taõhà, q.v.). The 4 kinds

of clinging are: sensuous clinging (kàmupàdàna),

clinging to views (diññhupàdàna), clinging to mere rules

and ritual (sãlabbatupàdàna), clinging to the personality-

belief (atta-vàdupàdàna).

(1) “What now is the sensuous clinging? Whatever

with regard to sensuous objects there exists of sensuous

– 341 –

lust, sensuous desire, sensuous attachment, sensuous

passion, sensuous deludedness, sensuous fetters: this is

called sensuous clinging.

(2) “What is the clinging to views? ‘Alms and

offerings are useless; there is no fruit and result for

good and bad deeds: all such view and wrong

conceptions are called the clinging to views.

(3) “What is the clinging to mere rules and ritual?

The holding firmly to the view that through mere rules

and ritual one may reach purification: this is called the

clinging to mere rules and ritual.

(4) “What is the clinging to the personality-belief?

The 20 kinds of ego-views with regard to the groups of

existence (s. sakkàya-diññhi): these are called the

clinging to the personality-belief” (Dhs. 1214-17).

This traditional fourfold division of clinging is not

quite satisfactory. Besides kamupàdàna we should expect

either råpupàdàna and aråpupàdàna, or simply

bhavupàdàna. Though the Anàgàmã is entirely free from

the traditional 4 kinds of upàdàna, he is not freed from

rebirth, as he still possesses bhavupàdàna. The Com. to

Vis.M. XVII, in trying to get out of this dilemma, explains

kàmupàdàna as including here all the remaining

kinds of clinging.

‘Clinging’ is the common rendering for u., though

‘grasping’ would come closer to the literal meaning of

it, which is ‘uptake’; s. Three Cardinal Discourses

(Wheel 17), p.19.

– 342 –

upàdàna-kkhandha: the 5 ‘groups of clinging’, or

more clearly stated in accordance with Vis.M., ‘the

5 groups of existence which form the objects of

clinging’. Cf. M. 44, and see khandha.

upàdà-råpa: ‘derived corporeality’, signifies the

24 secondary corporeal phenomena dependent on the

4 primary physical elements, i.e. the sense-organs and

sense-objects, etc. See khandha I; App.

upadhi: ‘substratum of existence’. In the Com. there

are enumerated 4 kinds: the 5 groups (khandha, q.v.),

sensuous desire (kàma), mental defilements

(kilesa, q.v.), karma (q.v.). In the suttas it occurs

frequently in Sn. (vv. 33, 364, 546, 728), and, with

reference to Nibbàna, in the phrase “the abandoning of

all substrata” (sabbåpadhi-pañinissagga; D. 14). See

viveka (3).

upàdi: lit. ‘something which one grasps, to which one

clings, i.e. the 5 groups of existence (khandha, q.v.). In

the suttas, the word is mostly used in such expressions

as “One of the 2 fruits may be expected: either perfect

wisdom or, if the groups are still remaining (sati upàdisese,

‘if there is a remainder of groups), Anàgàmãship”

(D. 22). Further (A. IV. 118): “Here the Perfect One

has passed into the Nibbàna-element in which no more

groups are remaining (anupàdi-sesa).” Cf. nibbàna.

upàdiõõa-råpa: ‘karmically acquired corporeality’, or

‘matter clung-to (by karma)’, is identical with karmaproduced

corporeality (kammaja-råpa; s. samuññhàna).

In Vis.M. XIV it is said: “That corporeality which, later

on, we shall refer to as ‘karma-produced’ (kammaja), is,

– 343 –

for its being dependent on previous (pre-natal) karma,

called ‘karmically acquired’.” The term (upàdinna)

occurs so in the suttas, e.g. M. 28 (Wheel 101),

62, 140. See Dhs. §990; Khandha Vibh.

upaghàtaka-kamma: ‘destructive karma’; s. karma.

upahacca-parinibbàyã: ‘one who reaches Nibbàna

within the first half of life’, is one of the 5 kinds of

Anàgàmã (q.v.).

upakkilesa: ‘impurities’, corruptions, imperfections

(a frequent rendering by ‘defilements’ is better reserved

for kilesa, q.v.).

A list of 16 moral ‘impurities of the mind’ (cittassa

upakkilesa) is mentioned and explained in M. 7 & 8

(Wheel. 61/62): 1. covetousness and unrighteous

greed (abhijjhà-visamalobha), 2. ill will (vyàpàda),

3. anger (kodha), 4. hostility (upanàha), 5. denigration

(makkha), 6. domineering (palàsa), 7. envy (issà),

8. stinginess (macchariya), 9. hypocrisy (màyà),

10. fraud (sàtheyya), 11. obstinacy (thambha),

12. presumption (sàrambha), 13. conceit (màna),

14. arrogance (atimàna), 15. vanity (mada),

16. negligence (pamàda).

There are 3 groups of upakkilesa pertaining to

meditation:

(a) 9 mental imperfections occurring in ‘one

devoted to higher mental training’ (adhicitta); 3 coarse

ones – evil conduct in deeds, words and thoughts;

3 medium – thoughts of sensual desire, ill will and

– 344 –

cruelty; 3 subtle – thoughts about one’s relatives, one’s

country and one’s reputation (A. III, 100).

(b) 18 imperfections in the practice of mindfulness

of breathing (ànàpàna-sati, q.v.), mentioned in Pts.M.,

ânàpàna-kathà (tr. in Mindfulness of Breathing, by

¥àõamoli Thera (p. 60; BPS).

(c) 10 ‘imperfections of insight’ (-meditation,

vipassanåpakkilesa); s. visuddhi V.

upanissaya-paccaya: ‘decisive support’ or ‘inducement’,

is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

upapajja-vedanãya-kamma: ‘karma ripening in the

next birth’; s. karma.

upapatti-bhava: ‘rebirth-process’; s. bhava.

upapãlaka-kamma: ‘suppressive kamma’; s. karma.

upàsaka: lit. ‘sitting close by’, i.e. a ‘lay adherent’, is

any lay follower who is filled with faith and has taken

refuge in the Buddha, his doctrine and his community

of noble disciples (A. VIII, 25). His virtue is regarded as

pure if he observes the 5 Precepts (pa¤ca-sãla;

s. sikkhàpada). He should avoid the following wrong

ways of livelihood: trading in arms, in living beings,

meat, alcohol and poison (A. V, 177). See also

A. VIII, 75.

upasamànussati: ‘recollection of the peace of

Nibbàna’, is the last of the 10 recollections

(anussati, q.v.). “Whatsoever, O monks, there are of

things, as highest of them is considered detachment

– 345 –

(viràga), i.e. the crushing of conceit, the stilling of

thirst, the uprooting of clinging, the breaking through

the round of rebirths, cessation of craving, detachment,

extinction, Nibbàna” (A. IV, 34).

upàsikà: ‘female adherent’; s. upàsaka.

upatthambhaka-kamma: ‘supportive karma’;

s. karma.

upavicàra: s. manopavicàra.

upekkhà: ‘equanimity’, also called tatramajjhattatà

(q.v.), is an ethical quality belonging to the

sankhàra-group (s. khandha) and should therefore not

be confounded with indifferent feeling (adukkha-masukhà

vedanà) which sometimes also is called upekkhà

(s. vedanà).

upekkhà is one of the 4 sublime abodes (brahmavihàra,

q.v.), and of the factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.). See Vis.M. IV, 156ff.

upekkhà-¤àõa = sankhàrupekkhà-¤àõa (q.v.).

upekkhà-sambojjhanga: ‘equanimity as factor of

enlightenment’; s. bojjhanga.

upekkhà-sukha: ‘equanimous happiness,’ is the feeling

of happiness accompanied by a high degree of equanimity

(upekkhà) as, e.g. in the 3rd absorption

(jhàna q.v.).

upekkhà-vedanà: s. vedanà.

upekkhindriya: the ‘faculty of indifference’, is one of

the 5 elements of feeling (M. 115) and therefore not to

– 346 –

be confounded with the ethical quality ‘equanimity’,

also called upekkhà (q.v.).

upekkhopavicàra: ‘indulging in indifference’;

s. manopavicàra.

uposatha: lit. ‘fasting’, i.e. ‘fasting day’, is the full-moon

day, the new-moon day, and the two days of the first

and last moon-quarters. On full-moon and new-moon

days, the Disciplinary Code, the Pàtimokkha, is read

before the assembled community of monks (bhikkhu),

while on the mentioned 4 moon-days many of the faithful

lay devotees go to visit the monasteries, and there

take upon themselves the observance of the 8 rules

(aññha-sãla; sikkhàpada). See A. VIII, 41ff.

uprightness: ujukatà q.v.

upstream to the highest gods, passing: s. anàgàmã.

usages, the 4 noble: ariya-vamsa (q.v.).

utu: temperature, heat, is identical with the heatelement

(tejodhàtu, q.v.).

utu-samuññhàna (= utuja)-råpa: ‘corporeality

produced by temperature’; s. samuññhàna.

– 347 –

V

vàcà: ‘speech’. On right sp., s. magga (3), sacca (IV.3). –

Low talk, s. tiracchàna-kathà.

vacã-kamma: ‘verbal action’; s. karma, kamma-patha.

vacã-sankhàra: ‘verbal karma-formation’, or ‘verbal

function’.

(1) For verbal karma-formation, s. sankhàra (I. 1).

(2) For verbal function (of mind), i.e. thoughtconception

and discursive thinking, s. sankhàra (I. 2).

vacã-vi¤¤atti: s. vi¤¤atti.

vanishing, Contemplation of: vayànupassanà, is one of

the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassàna, q.v.).

vanishing and reappearing: knowledge of the

v. and r. of beings according to karma, is identical with

the divine eye (s. abhi¤¤à 5).

vàritta-sãla: ‘morality consisting in avoiding’ (evil

things), as distinguished from ‘morality consisting in

performing’ (good things). See càritta-vàritta.

vasã: ‘mastery’. Vis.M. IV speaks of 5 kinds of m., which

anyone who wishes to develop the absorptions

(jhàna, q.v.) should acquire first of all, with regard to

the 1st absorption, namely: mastery in adverting to it

(àvajjana-vasã), in entering it (samàpajjana-vasã), in

determining it (adhitthàna-vasã), in rising therefrom

– 348 –

(vutthàna-vasã), in retrospection (paccavekkhana-vasã).

– (App.).

“If wherever, whenever, and for whatever duration

desired, one enters the 1st absorption, and at one’s

entering it, no slowness is experienced, this is called

mastery in entering the absorption, etc. In an analogous

way, the 4 remaining kinds are to be explained”

(Vis.M. IV, 131f; XXIII, 27ff.).

vañña: 1. ‘round’, 2. ‘round of rebirths’.

(1) With reference to the dependent origination

(pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.), Vis.M. XVII speaks of

3 rounds: the karma round (kamma-vañña) comprising

the karma-formations and the karma-process (2nd and

10th links); the round of defilements (kilesa-vañña)

comprising ignorance, craving and clinging (1st, 8th

and 9th links); the round of results (vipàka-vañña)

comprising consciousness, mind and corporeality,

6 bases, impression, feeling (3rd-7th links).

Cf. pañiccasamuppàda (diagram).

(2) round of rebirth = saüsàra (q.v.).

vatthu: ‘physical base’, i.e. the 6 physical organs on

which the mental process is based, are the 5 physical

sense-organs and, according to the Com., the heart

(hadaya-vatthu, q.v.) as the 6th. This 6th vatthu must

not be confounded with the 6th àyatana, which is a

collective name for all consciousness whatever. –

(App.).

vatthu-kàma: ‘objective sensuality’, the 5 senseobjects;

s. kàma.

– 349 –

vavatthàna: ‘determining’, defining. In its application

to insight meditation, this term occurred first in

Pts.M. (I, p. 53); but in a verbal form, as a past

participle, already in M. 111: tyassa dhammà anupadavavatthità

honti, “these things (the mental factors) were

determined by him (i.e. Sàriputta) successively”

(s. Abh. St., p. 54). In Vis.M. XX, 130, it is said: ‘The

determining of the truth of suffering is effected with the

determining of mind-and-body in the purification of

view (s. visuddhi III). The determining of the truth of

origination is effected with the discerning of conditions

in the purification by transcending doubt

(s. visuddhi IV). The determining of the truth of the

path is effected by emphasis on the right path in the

purification by knowledge and vision of what is path

and not-path (s. visuddhi V). Thus the determining of

the 3 truths (suffering, origin, path) has been first

effected by means of mundane (lokiya, q.v.) knowledge

only.” – See sammasana, visuddhi.

For the determining of the 4 physical elements,

s. dhàtuvavatthàna.

vayànupassanà: ‘contemplation of vanishing’, is one of

the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

vàyo-dhàtu: ‘wind-element’; s. dhàtu.

vàyo-kasiõa ‘wind-kasina’, is one of the kasina

exercises (kasiõa, q.v.).

vedanà: ‘feeling’, sensation, is the 2nd of the 5 groups

of existence (s. khandha II). According to its nature, it

may be divided into 5 classes: (1) bodily agreeable

feeling (kàyikà sukhà-vedanà = sukha); (2) bodily

– 350 –

disagreeable feeling (kàyikà dukkhà-vedanà = dukkhà);

(3) mentally agreeable feeling (cetasikà sukhà-vedanà

= somanassa); (4) mentally disagreeable feeling

(cetasikà dukkhà-vedanà = domanassa); (5) indifferent

or neutral (adukkha-m-asukhà vedanà = upekkhà, q.v.).

With regard to the 6 senses, one distinguishes

6 kinds of feeling: feeling associated with seeing,

hearing, smelling, tasting, bodily impression and mental

impression. The textual wording of it is ‘feeling arisen

through visual contact’ (cakkhu-samphassajà vedanà;

S. XXII, 55; D. 22), etc.

Feeling is one of the 7 mental factors inseparably

associated with all consciousness whatever, s. nàma.

In the formula of the dependent origination

(pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.), feeling is the condition for the

arising of craving (taõhà). The above-mentioned

5 kinds of feeling are enumerated amongst the

22 faculties (indriya, q.v.). – See M. 59; Contemplation

of Feeling (Vedanà Saüyutta), by Nyanaponika Thera

(Wheel 303/304).

vedanànupassanà: ‘contemplation of feeling’, is one

of the 4 foundations of mindfulness (satipaññhàna q.v.).

vehapphala is the name of a class of heavenly beings

in the fine-material world; s. deva.

verbal action: vacã-kamma; s. karma.

verbal functions of mind: vacã-sankhàra; s. sankhàra.

vesàrajja: ‘self-confidence’ of a Buddha is fourfold. He

is confident: 1. to have attained to a perfect Enlighten-

351 –

ment of which it cannot be said that it omits anything

essential to it; 2. to have destroyed all cankers (àsava),

leaving none that can be said to be undestroyed by

him; 3. that what were declared by him as obstacles to

liberation are undeniably such; 4. that his teaching

fulfils its purpose of actually leading to final liberation

from suffering. See A. IV, 8; VII, 58; M. 12.

vibhajja-vàda: ‘analytical or discriminating doctrine’ is

an early name for the original Buddha doctrine, called

Theravàda. – The term vibhajja-vàdã occurs in M. 99

and A. X, 94, though not in the sense of a separate

school, but as a characteristic of the Buddha himself:

“Now, by blaming what is blamable and praising what

is praiseworthy, the Blessed One is a ‘discriminating

teacher’ (vibhajja-vadã) and is not one-sided in his

teaching” (A. X, 94).

Buddhaghosa, in the introduction to his Com. on

the Kathàvatthu, says that in Asoka’s time, when the

Sangha prospered, many heretics took ordination as

Buddhist monks but continued to spread their wrong

doctrines. For purifying the Sangha, Asoka, together

with the venerable Moggaliputtatissa, summoned

assembly of the bhikkhus. When each of the assembled

was individually questioned by the king about what the

Buddha taught, those who said that he was an eternalist

(sassata-vadã), etc. were expelled. The genuine

bhikkhus replied that the Buddha was a vibhajja-vadã,

an ‘analyst’ or ‘discriminating teacher’; and when, on

the king’s question, Moggaliputtatissa confirmed that

this was the correct view, those monks were admitted to

the Uposatha (q.v.) assembly of the Sangha, and from

their midst the participants of the 3rd Council at Pàtali-

352 –

putta were selected. – See Mahàvamsa, tr. by Wilh.

Geiger, Ch. V, v. 268f.

vibhava diññhi = uccheda-diññhi; s. diññhi.

vibhava-taõhà: ‘craving for non-existence’, or for selfannihilation;

s. taõhà.

vicàra: ‘discursive thinking’; s. vitakka-vicàra.

vicikicchà: ‘sceptical doubt’, is one of the 5 mental

hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.) and one of the 3 fetters

(saüyojana, q.v.), which disappear for ever at Streamentry,

the first stage of holiness (s. ariya-puggala). As a

fetter, it refers to sceptical doubt about the Master (the

Buddha), the Teaching, the Sangha, and the training;

about things past and future, and conditionality

(Dhs. 1004; cf. A. X, 71). It also applies to uncertainty

whether things are wholesome or not, to be practised

or not, of high or low value, etc. According to

Vis.M. XIV, 177, vicikicchà is the lack of desire to think

(things out i.e. to come to a conclusion; vigata-cikicchà,

desiderative to √ cit, to think); it has the nature of

wavering, and its manifestation is indecision and a

divided attitude; its proximate cause is unwise attention

to matters of doubt. It is associated with one of the

2 classes of unwholesome consciousness rooted in

delusion (Tab. I, No. 32). – See also kankhà.

view, right: sammà-diññhi; s. diññhi, magga 1, sacca IV, 1.

– For wrong view, s. diññhi.

vigata-paccaya: ‘disappearance’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

– 353 –

vihàra: ‘abode’ There are 3 abodes: the heavenly

abode (dibba-vihàra), the divine abode (brahmavihàra,

q.v.), the noble abode (ariya-vihàra). See

A. III, 63; D. 33.

vijjà: ‘(higher) knowledge’, gnosis. For the 3-fold k.,

s. abhi¤¤à and te-vijjà. Cf. foll.

vijjà-caraõa: ‘knowledge and conduct’. This expression

occurs in those passages in the suttas where the

qualities of a Buddha are described, namely: “Truly, the

Blessed One is holy, is fully enlightened, perfect in

knowledge and conduct…”. According to Vis.M. VII, 1

and D. 3, knowledge (vijjà) refers here either to the

3-fold knowledge (s. te-vijjà), or to the 8 kinds of

knowledge, namely: the 6 higher spiritual powers

(abhi¤¤à, q.v.), insight (vipassanà, q.v.), and magical

power (iddhi, q.v.); whilst conduct (caraõa) refers to

15 things: moral restraint, watching over the sensedoors,

moderation in eating, wakefulness, faith, moral

shame, moral dread, great learning, energy, mindfulness,

wisdom and the 4 absorptions.

vikkhambhana-pahàna: ‘overcoming by repression’

(or ‘suspension’), is one of the 5 kinds of overcoming

(pahàna, q.v.).

vikubbanà-iddhi: the ‘power of transformation’, is one

of the magical faculties (iddhi, q.v.).

vimaüsà: ‘investigation, inquiry, pondering’, is one of

the 4 roads to power (iddhi-pàda, q.v.) and one of the

4 factors of predominance (s. paccaya, 3).

vimokkha: ‘liberation’ (deliverance). I. the 3; II. the 8.

– 354 –

I. The 3 liberations are: 1. the conditionless

(or signless) liberation (animitta-v.), 2. the desireless

liberation (apanihita-v.), 3. the emptiness (or void)

liberation (su¤¤atà-v.). They are also called ‘the triple

gateway to liberation’ (vimokkha-mukha; Vis.M. XXI,

66ff), as they are three different approaches to the

paths of holiness. – See visuddhi VI, 8. Cf. Vis XXI, 6ff,

121ff; Pts.M. II. Vimokkha-Kathà.

1. “Whosoever being filled with determination

(adhimokkha, q.v.), considers all formations as impermanent

(anicca), such a one attains the conditionless

liberation. 2. Whosoever being filled with tranquillity,

considers all formations as painful (dukkha), such a

one attains the desireless liberation. 3. Whosoever

being filled with wisdom, considers all formations as

without a self (anattà), such a one attains the emptiness

liberation” (Vis.M. XXI, 70 = Pts.M. II, p. 58).

(1) & (2) are mentioned and explained in M. 43,

under the name of deliverances of mind (ceto-vimutti, q.v.). –

(2) and (3) appear in Dhs. (344ff, 353ff) in the section

on supermundane consciousness (see Atthasàlini Tr.,

p. 299ff).

II. The 8 liberations (attha vimokkha) occur

frequently in the texts (A. VIII, 66; D. 16, etc.) and are

described as follows:

“There are 8 liberations, O monks. Which are

these?

(1) “Whilst remaining in the fine-material sphere

(råpã), one perceives corporeal forms: this is the first

liberation.

– 355 –

(2) “Not perceiving corporeal forms on one’s own

person, one perceives corporeal forms externally: this

is the 2nd liberation.

(3) “By thinking of the beautiful, one is filled with

confidence: this is the 3rd liberation.

(4) “Through the total overcoming of the corporeality-

perceptions, the vanishing of the reflex-perceptions,

and the non-attention to the multiformity-perceptions,

with the idea ‘Unbounded is space’, one reaches

the sphere of unbounded space (àkàsàna¤càyatana)

and abides therein: this is the 4th liberation.

(5) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

unbounded space, and with the idea ‘Unbounded is

consciousness’, one reaches the sphere of unbounded

consciousness (vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana) and abides therein:

this is the 5th liberation.

(6) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

unbounded consciousness, and with the idea ‘Nothing is

there’, one reaches the sphere of nothingness

(àki¤ea¤¤àyatana) and abides therein: this is the 6th

liberation.

(7) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

nothingness, one reaches the sphere of neitherperception-

nor-non-perception (n’eva-sa¤¤ànàsa¤¤

àyatana) and abides therein: this is the 7th

liberation.

(8) “Through the total overcoming of the sphere of

neither-perception-nor-non-perception, one reaches

the extinction of perception and feeling (s. nirodhasamàpatti):

this is the 8th liberation.

These, O monks, are the 8 kinds of liberation.”

– 356 –

For (1-3), s. abhibhàyatana; for (4-7), s. jhàna;

for (8), s. nirodha-samàpatti.

By (3) is meant the attainment of the fine-material

absorptions (jhàna, q.v.) by means of concentrating the

mind on perfectly pure and bright colours as objects of

the kasina (q.v.). According to Pts.M. this mental state is

produced also by concentrating the mind on the

4 sublime states, i.e. all-embracing kindness,

compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity, in

consequence of which all beings appear perfectly pure

and glorified, and thus the mind turns to the beautiful.

See Pts.M. II, Vimokkha-kathà; Atthasàlini Tr.,

p. 255; App.

vimutti: ‘deliverance’, is of 2 kinds: deliverance of

mind (ceto-vimutti, q.v.) and deliverance through

wisdom (pa¤¤à-vimutti, q.v.).

‘Deliverance of mind’, in the highest sense, is that

kind of concentration (samàdhi) which is bound up

with the path of Arahatship (arahatta-magga);

‘deliverance through wisdom’ is the knowledge (¤àõa)

bound up with the fruition of Arahatship (arahattaphala).

Cf. A. V, 142.

There are also 5 kinds of deliverance, identical with

the 5 kinds of overcoming (pahàna, q.v.).

vinipàta: ‘world of suffering’, is another name for the

4 woeful courses (duggati; s. gati) of existence, and for

the 4 lower worlds (apàya, q.v.).

The Stream-Winner (sotàpanna, q.v.) is no longer

subject to rebirth in them (avinipàta-dhamma).

– 357 –

vi¤¤àõa: ‘consciousness’, is one of the 5 groups of

existence (aggregates; khandha, q.v.); one of the

4 nutriments (àhàra, q.v.); the 3rd link of the dependent

origination (pañiccasamuppàda, q.v.); the 5th in the

sixfold division of elements (dhàtu, q.v.).

Viewed as one of the 5 groups (khandha), it is

inseparably linked with the 3 other mental groups

(feeling, perception and formations) and furnishes the

bare cognition of the object, while the other

3 contribute more specific functions. Its ethical and

karmic character, and its greater or lesser degree of

intensity and clarity, are chiefly determined by the

mental formations associated with it.

Just like the other groups of existence, consciousness

is a flux (vi¤¤àõa-sotà, ‘stream of c.’) and does not

constitute an abiding mind-substance; nor is it a

transmigrating entity or soul. The 3 characteristics

(s. ti-lakkhaõa), impermanence, suffering and no-self,

are frequently applied to it in the texts (e.g., in the

Anattalakkhana Sutta, S.XXII, 59). The Buddha often

stressed that “apart from conditions, there is no arising

of consciousness’ (M. 38); and all these statements

about its nature hold good for the entire range of

consciousness, be it “past, future or presently arisen,

gross or subtle, in oneself or external, inferior or lofty,

far or near” (S. XXII, 59).

According to the 6 senses it divides into 6 kinds,

viz. eye- (or visual) consciousness (cakkhu-v.), etc.

About the dependent arising of these 6 kinds of consciousness,

Vis.M. XV, 39 says: ‘Conditioned through the

eye, the visible object, light and attention, eye-consciousness

arises. Conditioned through the ear, the

– 358 –

audible object, the ear-passage and attention, earconsciousness

arises. Conditioned, through the nose,

the olfactive object, air and attention, nose-consciousness

arises. Conditioned through the tongue, the

gustative object, humidity and attention, tongueconsciousness

arises. Conditioned through the body,

bodily impression, the earth-element and attention,

body-consciousness arises. Conditioned through the

subconscious mind (bhavanga-mano), the mind-object

and attention, mind-consciousness arises.”

The Abhidhamma literature distinguishes 89 classes

of consciousness, being either karmically wholesome,

unwholesome or neutral, and belonging either to the

sense-sphere, the fine-material or the immaterial

sphere, or to supermundane consciousness. See Table I.

vi¤¤àõa-kicca: ‘functions of consciousness’, as exercised

within a process of consciousness or cognitive

series (cittavãthi). In the Abhidhamma Com. and

Vis.M. XIV the following functions are mentioned:

rebirth (pañisandhi), subconsciousness (bhavanga),

advertence (àvajjana), seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting,

body-consciousness; receiving (sampañicchana),

investigating (santãraõa), determining (votthapana),

impulsion (javana), registering (tadàrammaõa), dying

(cuti).

A single unit of sense-perception (e.g. visual

consciousness), being conditioned through a senseorgan

and its corresponding object, forms in reality an

extremely complex process, in which all the single

phases of consciousness follow one upon another in

– 359 –

rapid succession, while performing their respective

functions, e.g.:

“As soon as a visible object has entered the range of

vision, it acts on the sensitive eye-organ (cakkhupasàda),

and conditioned thereby an excitation of the

subconscious stream (bhavanga-sota) takes place.

“As soon, however, as subconsciousness is broken

off, the functional mind-element (s. Tab. I, 70), grasping

the object and breaking through the subconscious

stream, performs the function of ‘adverting’ the mind

towards the object (àvajjana).

“Immediately thereupon there arises at the eyedoor,

and based on the sensitive eye-organ, the eyeconsciousness,

while performing the function of ‘seeing’

(dassana)….

Immediately thereafter there arises the mindelement

(Tab. I, 39, 55) performing the function of

‘receiving’ (sampañicchana) the object of that

consciousness….

‘‘Immediately thereafter there arises… the mindconsciousness-

element (Tab. I, 40, 41, 56), while

‘investigating’ (santiraõa) the object received by the

mind-element.…

“Immediately thereafter there arises the functional,

rootless mind-consciousness-element (Tab. I, 71),

accompanied by indifference, while performing the

function of ‘determining’ (votthapana) the object….

“Now, if the object is large, then immediately

afterwards there flash forth 6 or 7 ‘impulsive moments’

(javana-citta), constituted by one of the 8 wholesome,

– 360 –

or 12 unwholesome, or 9 functional classes of

consciousness (Tab. I, 1-8; 22-23; 72-80).

‘‘Now, if at the end of the impulsive moments, the

object at the five-sense doors is very large, and at the

mind-door clear, then there arises, once or twice, one

of the 8 root-accompanied, karma-resultant classes of

consciousness (Tab. I, 42-49) of the sense-sphere, or

one of the 3 rootless karma-resultant mind-consciousness-

elements (Tab. I, 40, 41, 56)…. Because this

consciousness after the vanishing of the impulsive

moments, possesses the faculty continuing with the

object of the subconsciousness, taking the object of the

subconsciousness as its own object, therefore it is called

‘registering’ (tadàrarmmaõa, lit. ‘that object’, or ‘having

that as object’)” (Vis.M. XIV, 115ff).

If, however, the sense-object is weak, then it

reaches merely the stage of ‘impulsion’ (javana), or of

‘determining’ (votthapana); if very weak, only an

excitation of the subconsciousness takes place.

The process of the inner or mind-consciousness,

i.e. without participation of the 5 physical senses, is as

follows: in the case that the mind-object entering the

mind-door is distinct, then it passes through the stages

of ‘advertence at the mind-door’ (manodvàràvajjana),

the ‘impulsive stage’ and the ‘registering stage’, before

finally sinking into the subconscious stream. – (App.:

citta-vãthi).

Literature: Aids to the Abhidhamma Philosophy, by

Dr. C. B. Dharmasena (with colour chart of the Cognitive

Series; Wheel 63/64). – The Psychology and Philosophy of

Buddhism, by Dr. W. F. Javasuriya (Buddhist Missionary

Socy., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia).

– 361 –

vi¤¤àõa¤càyatana: ‘sphere of boundless

consciousness’, is a name for the 2nd meditative

absorption in the immaterial sphere (s. jhàna, 6).

vi¤¤àõa-ññhiti: ‘abodes or supports of consciousness’.

The texts describe 7 such abodes (e.g. A. VII, 41):

(1) “There are beings who are different in body

and different in perception, such as men, some

heavenly beings, and some beings living in states of

suffering (s. apàya). This is the 1st abode of

consciousness.

(2) “There are beings who are different in body but

equal in perception, such as the first-born gods of the

Brahma-world (s. deva II). This is the 2nd abode of

consciousness.

(3) “There are beings who are equal in body but

different in perception, such as the Radiant Gods

(àbhassara-deva). This is the 3rd abode of

consciousness.

(4) “There are beings who are equal in body and

equal in perception, such as the All-illuminating Gods

(subhakiõha-deva). This is the 4th abode of

consciousness.

(5) “There are beings… reborn in the sphere of

boundless space. This is the 5th abode of

consciousness.

(6) “There are beings… reborn in the sphere of

boundless consciousness. This is the 6th abode of

consciousness.

(7) There are beings… reborn in the sphere of

nothingness. This is the 7th abode of consciousness”

– 362 –

About the 3 last-named spheres, s. jhàna (5-7).

Cf. sattàvàsa.

In D. 33 there are mentioned 4 vi¤¤àõa-ññhiti,

apparently in the sense of ‘bases’ of consciousness,

namely: corporeality, feeling, perception, mental

formations, which in S. XXII, 53 are further explained.

vi¤¤atti: (lit. ‘making known’) ‘intimation’, is an

Abhidhamma term for bodily expression (kàyavi¤¤

atti) and verbal expression (vacã-vi¤¤atti), both

belonging to the corporeality-group. They are produced

by the co-nascent volition, and are therefore, as

such, purely physical and not to be confounded with

karma (q.v.), which as such is something mental.

Cf. Kath. 80, 100, 101, 103, 194 (s. Guide V). – (App.).

“One speaks of ‘bodily expression’, because it

makes known an intention by means of bodily movement,

and can itself be understood by the bodily movement

which is said to be corporeal.

“ ‘Verbal expression’ is so called because it makes

known an intention by means of a speech-produced

noise” (Vis.M. XIV).

vipacita¤¤u (or vipa¤cita¤¤u): ‘one who realizes the

truth after explanation.’ Thus is called one who realizes

the truth only after detailed explanation of that which

already had been said to him in a concise form.

Cf. ugghañita¤¤u.

vipàka: ‘karma-result’, is any karmically (morally)

neutral mental phenomenon (e.g. bodily agreeable or

painful feeling, sense-consciousness, etc.), which is the

– 363 –

result of wholesome or unwholesome volitional action

(karma, q.v.) through body, speech or mind, done

either in this or some previous life. Totally wrong is the

belief that, according to Buddhism, everything is the

result of previous action. Never, for example, is any

karmically wholesome or unwholesome volitional

action the result of former action, being in reality itself

karma. On this subject s. titthàyatana, karma, Tab. I;

Fund II. Cf. A. III, 101; Kath. 162 (Guide, p. 80).

Karma-produced (kammaja or kamma-samuññhàna)

corporeal things are never called kamma-vipàka, as this

term may be applied only to mental phenomena.

vipàka-paccaya: ‘karma-result condition’ is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

vipallàsa: ‘perversions’ or ‘distortions’. – ‘‘There are

4 perversions which may be either of perception

(sa¤¤à-vipallàsa), of consciousness (citta v.) or of views

(diññhi-v.). And which are these four? To regard what is

impermanent (anicca) as permanent; what is painful

(dukkha) as pleasant (or happiness-yielding); what is

without a self (anattà) as a self; what is impure (ugly:

asubha) as pure or beautiful’’ (A. IV, 49). – See Manual

of Insight, by Ledi Sayadaw (Wheel 31/32), p.5.

“Of the perversions, the following are eliminated

by the 1st path-knowledge (sotàpatti): the perversions

of perception, consciousness and views, that the impermanent

is permanent and what is not a self is a self;

further, the perversion of views that the painful is

pleasant, and the impure is pure. By the 3rd pathknowledge

(anàgàmità) are eliminated: the perversions

of perception and consciousness that the impure is

– 364 –

pure. By the 4th path-knowledge (arahatta) are

eliminated the perversions of perception and consciousness

that the painful is pleasant” (Vis.M. XXII, 68).

vipariõàmànupassanà: ‘contemplation of change’ (of

all things), is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(vipassanà, q.v.).

vipassanà: ‘insight’, is the intuitive light flashing forth

and exposing the truth of the impermanency, the

suffering and the impersonal and unsubstantial nature

of all corporeal and mental phenomena of existence. It

is insight-wisdom (vipassanà-pa¤¤à) that is the decisive

liberating factor in Buddhism, though it has to be

developed along with the 2 other trainings in morality

and concentration. The culmination of insight practice

(s. visuddhi VI) leads directly to the stages of holiness

(s. visuddhi VII).

Insight is not the result of a mere intellectual

understanding, but is won through direct meditative

observation of one’s own bodily and mental processes.

In the commentaries and the Vis.M., the sequence in

developing insight-meditation is given as follows:

1. discernment of the corporeal (råpa), 2. of the mental

(nàma), 3. contemplation of both (nàmaråpa; i.e. of

their pairwise occurrence in actual events, and their

interdependence), 4. both viewed as conditioned

(application of the dependent origination,

pañiccasamuppàda), 5. application of the

3 characteristics (impermanency, etc.) to mind-andbody-

cum-conditions.

The stages of gradually growing insight are

described in the 9insight- knowledges (vipassanà–

365 –

¤àõa), constituting the 6th stage of purification:

beginning with the ‘knowledge of rise and fall’ and

ending with the ‘adaptation to Truth’. For details, see

visuddhi VI and Vis.M. XXI.

Eighteen chief kinds of insight-knowledge (or principal

insights, mahà-vipassanà) are listed and described

in Vis.M. XXII, 113:(1) contemplation of impermanence

(aniccànupassanà), (2) of suffering

(dukkhànupassanà), (3) of no self (anattànupassanà),

(4) of aversion (nibbidànupassanà). (5) of detachment

(viràgànupassanà), (6) of extinction (nirodhànupassanà),

(7) of abandoning (pañinissaggànupassanà), (8) of waning

(khayànupassanà), (9) of vanishing (vayànupassanà),

(10) of change (vipariõàmànupassanà), (11) of the

unconditioned (or signless, animittànupassanà), (12) of

desirelessness (apaõihitànupassanà), (13) of emptiness

(su¤¤atàupassanà), (14) insight into phenomena which

is higher wisdom (adhipa¤¤à-dhamma-vipassanà),

(15) knowledge and vision according to reality (yathàbhåta-¤

àõadassana), (16) contemplation of misery (or

danger, àdãnavànupassanà), (17) reflecting contemplation

(pañisankhànupassanà), (18) contemplation of turning away

(vivaññanànupassanà).

Through these 18, the adverse ideas and views are

overcome, for which reason this way of overcoming is

called ‘overcoming by the opposite’ (tadanga-pahàna,

overcoming this factor by that). Thus (1) dispels the

idea of permanence. (2) the idea of happiness, (3) the

idea of self, (4) lust, (5) greed, (6) origination,

(7) grasping, (8) the idea of compactness, (9) karmaaccumulation,

(10) the idea of lastingness, (11) the

– 366 –

conditions, (12) delight, (13) adherence, (14) grasping

and adherence to the idea of substance,

(15) attachment and adherence, (17) thoughtlessness,

(18) dispels entanglement and clinging.

Insight may be either mundane (lokiya, q.v.) or

supermundane (lokuttara, q.v.). Supermundane insight

is of 3 kinds: (1) joined with one of the 4 supermundane

paths, (2) joined with one of the fruitions of these

paths, (3) regarding the extinction, or rather

suspension, of consciousness (s. nirodha-samàpatti).

See samatha-vipassanà, visuddhi, III-VII.

Literature: Manual of Insight, by Ledi Sayadaw

(Wheel 31/32). Practical Insight Meditation, Progress of

Insight, both by Mahàsi Sayadaw (BPS). The Experience of

Insight, by Joseph Goldstein (BPS).

vipassanà-yànika = sukkha-vipassaka (q.v.).

vipassanåpakkilesa: ‘imperfections of insight’;

s. visuddhi.

vipatti: ‘aberration’ or ‘deviation’, may be: deviation

from morality (sãla-vipatti), or deviation from understanding

(diññhivipatti).

“To deviate in deeds, or in words, or in both deeds

and words: this is called deviation from morality.

“ ‘Alms and offerings are useless, there is no fruit

and result of good and bad actions, there are no such

things as this and the next life’…. Such wrong views are

called deviation from understanding.” (Pug. 67, 68)

vippayutta-paccaya: ‘dissociation’, is one of the

24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).

– 367 –

viràga: ‘fading away’, detachment; absence of lust,

dispassionateness. Appears frequently together with

nirodha, ‘cessation’ (1) as a name for Nibbàna, (2) in

the contemplations (a) forming the 4th tetrad in the

exercises in mindfulness of breathing

(s. ànàpànasati 14), (b) of the 18 principal insights

(No. 5); s. vipassanà.

According to Com., it may mean (1) the momentary

destruction of phenomena, or (2) the ultimate ‘fading

away’, i.e. Nibbàna. In the aforementioned two

contemplations, it means the understanding of both,

and the path attained by such understanding.

viràgànupassanà: s. prec.

virati: the 3 ‘abstentions’ or abstinences, are: abstention

from wrong speech, wrong (bodily) action and

wrong livelihood; corresponding to right speech, action

and livelihood of the 8-fold Path (s. magga, 3-5). By

abstention is not simply meant the non-occurrence of

the evil things in question, but the deliberate abstaining

therefrom, whenever occasion arises. They belong to

the ‘secondary’ (not constant) mental concomitants

obtaining in lofty consciousness (s. Tab. II). Cf. sãla.

virility: s. bhàva.

viriya: ‘energy’, lit. ‘virility’, ‘manliness’ or ‘heroism’

(from vãra, man, hero; Lat. vir; cf. virtus), is one of the

5 spiritual faculties and powers (s. bala), one of the

7 factors of enlightenment (s. bojjhanga) and identical

with right effort of the 8-fold Path (s. magga). For

further explanations, s. padhàna.

– 368 –

viriya-sambojjhanga: ‘energy as factor of enlightenment’,

is one of the 7 factors of enlightenment

(bojjhanga, q.v.).

virtue: s. sãla.

visesa-bhàgiya-sãla: (-samàdhi, –pa¤¤à): morality

(concentration, wisdom) connected with progress’. For

details, s. hànabhàgiya-sãla.

visible object: s. àyatana.

visuddhi: ‘purification’, purity. The ‘7 stages of

purification’ (satta-visuddhi) form the substructure of

Upatissa’s Vimutti-Magga (The Path To Freedom),

preserved only in Chinese, as well as of Buddhaghosa’s

monumental work, Visuddhi-Magga (The Path of

Purification), based on the former work.

The only place in the Canon where these 7 kinds of

purification are mentioned is M. 24, “The Simile of the

Stage-coach” (s. ‘Path’, §64), wherein their purpose and

goal are illustrated. There it is said that the real and

ultimate goal does not consist in purification of morality,

or of mind, or of view, etc., but in total deliverance

and extinction. Now, just as one mounts the first coach

and travels to the second coach, then mounts the

second coach and travels with it to the third coach, etc.,

in exactly the same way the goal of (I) the purification

of morality (sãla-visuddhi) is (II) the purification of

mind (citta-visuddhi); its goal: (III) the purification of

view (diññhi-visuddhi); its goal: (IV) the purification by

overcoming doubt (kankhàvitaraõa-visuddhi); its goal:

(V) the purification by knowledge and vision of what is

path and not-path (maggàmagga-¤àõadassana–

369 –

visuddhi); its goal: (VI) the purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress (pañipadà-¤àõadassanavisuddhi);

its goal: (VII) the purification of knowledge

and vision (¤àõadassana-visuddhi); but the goal of this

purification is deliverance freed from all clinging.

(I) “Purification of morality (sãla-visuddhi) consists

of the 4-fold purity of morality (catu-pàrisuddhi-sãla),

namely: restraint with regard to the Disciplinary Code

(pàtimokkhasaüvara-sãla), sense-restraint

(indriysaüvara-sãla), purity of livelihood

(àjãvapàrisuddhi-sãla), morality with regard to the

4 requisites (paccaya-sannissita-sãla)” (Vis.M. XVIII). On

these 4 terms, s. sãla. – In the case of a layman, it entails

the observance of whatever moral rules (5 or more) he

has taken upon himself.

(II) “Purification of mind (citta-visuddhi) is a name

for the 8 attainments (= absorptions: jhàna, q.v.), as

well as for neighbourhood-concentration (upacàrasamàdhi;

s. samàdhi).” (ib.).

(III) “By purification of view (diññhi-visuddhi) is

meant the understanding, according to reality, of mind

and corporeality (nàmaråpa, q.v.)… which is founded

on undeludedness (wisdom) as base, and which in

manifold ways determines mind and corporeality after

overcoming all belief in a personality (attà: self, ego.).”

(ib.).

(IV) “By purification by overcoming doubt

(kankhà-vitaraõa-visuddhi) is meant the understanding

which, by grasping the conditions of this mind and

corporeality, has escaped from all doubt with regard to

the 3 times (past, present, future).” (ib. XIX)

– 370 –

(V) “By purification by knowledge and vision of

what is path and not-path (maggàmagga-¤àõadassanavisuddhi)

is meant that understanding which knows the

right path from the wrong path: ‘This is the right path,

that the wrong path.’ “ (ib. XX)

In order to attain this 5th stage of purification, one

at first should develop methodical insight (nayavipassanà),

i.e. through contemplation of the 5 groups

of existence (khandha, q.v.). For whosoever does not

yet possess a perfectly developed insight, to him such

phenomena as effulgence of light, etc. (see below),

arising during insight, may become impediments in the

3 kinds of full understanding here considered

(s. pari¤¤à).

‘As soon as the manifold ways and characteristics of

the 4 Truths (sacca) and the dependent origination

(pañiccasamuppàda) have become clear to the meditating

disciple, he says to himself: Thus do these things

never before arisen arise, and having arisen they disappear

again. Thus do the formations of existence ever

and again arise as something quite new. But not only

are they something new, they are moreover also of

limited duration, like a dew-drop at sunrise, like a

bubble, like a line drawn with a stick in the water, like a

mustard seed placed on the point of an arrow, or like a

flash of lightning. Also as something unsubstantial and

empty do they appear, as jugglery, as a mirage….

Merely something subject to vanishing arises, and

having arisen disappears again.’ ”

During such insight practice, however, may arise

the 10 imperfections (or defilements) of insight

– 371 –

(vipassanåpakkilesa): effulgence of light (obhàsa),

knowledge (¤àõa), rapture (pãti), tranquillity

(passaddhi), happiness (sukha), determination

(adhimokkha), energy (paggaha), awareness

(upaññhàna), delight (nikanti). – See Vis.M. XX, 105f.

(App.).

Excepting the last one, ‘delight’, they are not

imperfections or defilements in themselves, but may

become a basis for them through the arising of pride or

delight or by a wrong conclusion that one of the holy

paths has been attained. He, however, who is watchful

and experienced in insight practice, will know that

these states of mind do not indicate attainment of the

true path, but are only symptoms or concomitants of

insight meditation.

“Thus far the meditating disciple has determined

3 of the truths, namely while determining the corporeal

and mental phenomena he has, through purification of

view (diññhi-visuddhi), determined the ‘truth of

suffering’. While grasping the conditions he has,

through purification by overcoming doubt (kankhàvitaraõa-

visuddhi), determined the ‘truth of the origin

of suffering’. While determining the right path, he has,

through purification by knowledge and vision of what is

path and not-path (maggàmagga¤àõadassanavisuddhi),

determined the ‘truth of the path’ (leading to

the extinction of suffering).”

(VI) Purification by knowledge and vision of the

path-progress (pañipadà-¤àõadassana-visuddhi) is the

insight perfected in 8 kinds of knowledge, together with

the 9th knowledge, the ‘knowledge adapting itself to

truth’.

– 372 –

By the 8 kinds of knowledge are here meant the

following, which are freed from defilements, follow the

right process, and are considered as insight, namely:

1. knowledge consisting in contemplation of rise

and fall (udayabbayànupassanà-¤àõa),

2. in contemplation of dissolution (bhangànupassanà-¤àõa),

3. in awareness of terror (or the fearful)

(bhayatåpaññhànà-¤àõa),

4. in contemplation of misery (àdãnavànupassanà-

¤àõa),

5. in contemplation of aversion (nibbidànupassanà-

¤àõa),

6. in the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyatà-

¤àõa),

7. in reflecting contemplation (pañisankhànupassanà-¤àõa),

8. in equanimity regarding all formations of exist

ence (sankhàrupekkhà-¤àõa) – which is

followed by

9. in adaptation to truth (saccànulomika-¤àõa).

(1) consists in the meditative observation of the

3 characteristics of existence (impermanence, suffering,

no self) in one’s own bodily and mental processes. As

long as the mind is still disturbed by the 10 imperfections

(s. V), the 3 characteristics will not become fully

clear in their true nature. Only when the mind is free

from these imperfections can the characteristics be

observed clearly.

(2) When through such repeated practice, knowledge

and mindfulness have grown keen and the bodily

and mental formations become apparent quickly, at

– 373 –

that stage the phase of dissolution of these formations

will become prominent.

“Consciousness with (e.g.) materiality as its object

arises and dissolves. Having reflected on that object, he

contemplates the dissolution of (reflecting) consciousness.”

(Pts.M. I, 57, quoted in Vis.M. XXI, 11).

The 8 blessings of this knowledge are: abandoning

the belief in eternal existence (bhava-diññhi), giving up

attachment to life, constant right application (of mind

to meditative endeavour), a purified livelihood, overcoming

of anxiety, absence of fear, acquisition of forbearance

and gentleness, conquest of discontent and

sensual delight (Vis.M. XXI, 28).

(3) Knowledge consisting in awareness of terror

(or fearfulness) is the seeing of terror in the conditions

as well as the continuity of existence. For whoso considers

the formations as impermanent, to him the conditions

of existence (i.e. the karma-formations producing

ever new existence) appear as terror, as driving

towards death. Whoso considers the formations as

misery, to him the continuity of existence appears as

terror, as something oppressive. Whoso considers the

formations as impersonal, to him the karma-formations,

as well as the continuity of existence, appear as terror,

as an empty village, as a mirage, etc.

(4) Contemplation of misery (or danger) is another

aspect of the awareness of terror: “The origin (of existence)

is terror… continuance of existence is terror…

arising is suffering’, such understanding in the awareness

of terror is the knowledge of misery. ‘Non-arising is

bliss’, this is knowledge of the peaceful state (Pts.M. I, 59);

– 374 –

that is, the no-more-arising is safety, is happiness, is

Nibbàna.

(5) Contemplation of aversion means: aversion for

all formations as terror, therefore its name ‘awareness

of terror’ has come into use. Because it has made

known the misery of all these formations, therefore it

has received the name of ‘contemplation of misery’

(àdãnavànupassanà). Because it has arisen through

aversion for those formations, therefore it is known as

‘contemplation of aversion’ (nibbidànupassanà).

(6) Knowledge consisting in the desire for deliverance

means: the desire for freedom and escape from all

formations of existence. For feeling aversion for all

formations, becoming weary of them, finding no more

delight in them, the mind does not cling to a single one

of all these formations.

(7) Reflecting contemplation is the repeated

meditative discernment of the formations of existence,

attributing to them the 3 characteristics of existence,

with the desire to find deliverance from all forms of

existence.

(8) Equanimity regarding all formations: “When

the meditator (through reflecting contemplation) has

discerned the formations by applying the 3 characteristics

to them and sees them as void, he abandons both

terror and delight, and becomes indifferent and equanimous

with regard to all formations; he neither takes

them as I nor as ‘mine’; he is like a man who has divorced

his wife” (Vis.M. XXI, 61).

Now, while continuing to contemplate the 3 characteristics

of existence and perceiving the tranquil lot of

– 375 –

Nibbàna as the peace, this equanimity-knowledge

becomes the triple gateway to liberation. As it is said

(Pts.M. II, p. 48):

“Three gateways to liberation (vimokkha-mukha;

s. vimokkha I) lead to escape from the world, namely:

that the mind is contemplating all formations as limited,

and is rushing forward to the conditionless element

(animitta-dhàtu); that the mind is stirred with regard to

all formations of existence, and is rushing forward to

the desireless element (appaõihita-dhàtu); that the

mind sees all things as something foreign, and is rushing

forward to the void element (su¤¤atà-dhàtu).”

At this stage, and through the triple gateway, the

diversification of path attainment takes place, according

to the 7 kinds of noble persons (ariya-puggala, q.v.); on

this see Vis.M. XXI, 74ff.

The 6th, 7th and 8th knowledges, according to

Vis.M. XXI, form really only one single knowledge in its

first, middle and final stages of development. This

knowledge is also known as the ‘insight leading to path

ascent’ (vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà, q.v.).

(9) Adaptation to truth (or conformity with truth)

is called that knowledge which, while contemplating

impermanency, etc. adapts itself to the preceding

8 kinds of insight-knowledge, as well as to the immediately

following supermundane path and to the

37 elements pertaining to enlightenment

(bodhipakkhiya-dhamma, q.v.). It is identical with

adaptation-knowledge (anuloma¤àõa).

“Whosoever has cultivated, developed, and

frequently practised ‘equanimity regarding all

formations’ in him arises very strong faith known as

– 376 –

determination (adhimokkha-saddhà) and his energy is

better exerted, his mindfulness better established, his

mind better concentrated, and a still stronger ‘equanimity

regarding the formations’ arises. ‘Now the path will

reveal itself’, thus thinking, the meditator contemplates

with his equanimity-knowledge all formations as impermanent,

etc., and thereafter that knowledge sinks into

the subconscious stream of existence (s. bhavangasotà).

Immediately afterwards there arises advertence

at the mind-door (s. vi¤¤àõa-kicca). And just like

equanimity-knowledge, the adaptation-knowledge, too,

takes as its object the formations, regarding them as

something impermanent, miserable and impersonal.

Thereupon, while continuing the uninterrupted

continuity of consciousness (citta-santati), there arises

the 1st impulsive moment (javana, q.v.), called

‘preparation’ (parikamma), taking the same formations

as object. Immediately thereafter, with the same

formations as object, there arises the 2nd impulsive

moment, known as ‘access’ (upacàra). And again

immediately after that, there arises the impulsive

moment called ‘adaptation’ (anuloma).”

(VII) Purification of knowledge and vision

(¤àõadassana-visuddhi) is the knowledge associated

with any of the 4 kinds of supermundane pathconsciousness

(s. ariyapuggala).

“Immediately upon this adaptation-knowledge

there arises the ‘maturity-knowledge’ (gotrabhå-¤àõa;

s. gotrabhå) taking as object the Unconditioned, the

standstill of existence, the absence of becoming,

cessation, Nibbàna, while at the same time transcending

the rank (gotta = gotra: lineage), designation and

– 377 –

plane of the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), and entering

the rank, designation and plane of the Noble Ones

(ariya), being the first turning towards Nibbàna as

object, the first thinking of it, the first concentration on

it, and the condition for the path… forming the culmination

of insight, and never as such coming back again.

‘‘As the immediate continuation following upon

that maturity knowledge (gotrabhå-¤àõa), there arises

the first path-consciousness (Stream-entrance) forever

destroying the first 3 of the 10 fetters of existence

(saüyojana, q.v.), and closing the entrance to the lower

worlds. Immediately after this path-knowledge, there

arise, as its result, 2 or 3 path-produced states of consciousness,

the fruitional consciousness (phala-citta).

Immediately after the sinking of this consciousness into

the subconscious stream of existence, the retrospective

knowledge (paccavekkhana-¤àõa, q.v.) arises, having

the path-consciousness as its object” (Vis.M. XXI). For

the 3 higher paths, s. ariya-puggala.

Each of the 4 kinds of path-consciousness performs

at the one and the same time 4 functions, namely: the

function of full understanding (pari¤¤à, q.v.) of suffering,

the function of overcoming (pahàna, q.v.) the origin

of suffering, the function of realizing (sacchikiriyà)

the extinction of suffering, the function of developing

(bhàvanà, q.v.) the supermundane Noble Eightfold

Path (magga, q.v.).

See Path of Purification, by Buddhaghosa, tr. by

¥yanamoli (BPS); Path of Freedom, by Upatissa (BPS).

vitakka: ‘thought’, ‘thought-conception’, is one of the

‘secondary’ (not constant) mental concomitants

– 378 –

(s. Tab. II), and may be either karmically wholesome,

unwholesome or neutral. – “There are 3 karmically

unwholesome (akusala) thoughts: sensuous thought

(kàma-vitakka), hating thought (byàpàda-v.), and cruel

thought (vihiüsa-v.). There are 3 karmically wholesome

(kusala) thoughts: thought of renunciation

(nekkhamma-v.), of hatelessness (avyàpàda-v.), of not

harming (avihimsà-v.).” The latter three constitute

‘right thought’, the 2nd link of the 8-fold Path

(s. magga 2).

On the ‘Removal of Distracting Thoughts’ (vitakkasaõñhàna),

s. M. 20 (tr. in Wheel 21).

vitakka-vicàra: ‘thought-conception and discursive

thinking’, (or ‘applied and sustained thought’) are

verbal functions (vacã-sankhàra: s. sankhàra) of the

mind, the so-called ‘inner speech (‘parole interieure’).

They are constituents of the 1st absorption (s. jhàna),

but absent in the higher absorptions.

(1) “Thought-conception (vitakka) is the laying

hold of a thought, giving it attention. Its characteristic

consists in fixing the consciousness to the object.

(2) “Discursive thinking (vicàra) is the roaming

about and moving to and fro of the mind…. It manifests

itself as continued activity of mind” (Vis.M. IV).

(1) is compared with the striking against a bell,

(2) with its resounding; (1) with the seizing of a pot,

(2) with wiping it. (Cf. Vis. IV.).

vitality: jãvitindriya; s. indriya, khandha (corporeality,

mental formations), Tab. II.

– 379 –

vãthi = citta-vãthi: ‘process of consciousness’;

s. vi¤¤àõakicca.

vivañña: ‘absence of the cycle of existence’ (vañña, q.v.),

standstill of existence, is a name for Nibbàna

(s. nibbàna). – (App.).

vivañña-kappa: s. kappa.

vivaññanànupassanà: ‘contemplation of the turning

away’, is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight

(vipassanà, q.v.). – (App.).

viveka: ‘detachment’, seclusion, is according to

Niddesa, of 3 kinds: (1) bodily detachment (kàyaviveka),

i.e. abiding in solitude free from alluring

sensuous objects; (2) mental detachment (citta-viveka),

i.e. the inner detachment from sensuous things;

(3) detachment from the substrata of existence

(upadhi-viveka).

In the description of the 1st absorption, the words

“detached from sensuous things” (vivicc’ eva kàmehi)

refer, according to Vis.M. IV, to ‘bodily detachment’; the

words “detached from karmically unwholesome things”

(vivicca akusalehi dhammehi) refer to ‘mental detachment’;

the words “born of detachment” (vivekaja), to

the absence of the 5 hindrances.

viveka-sukha: ‘happiness of detachment’, or aloofness

(s. prec). “Whoso is addicted to society and worldly

bustle, he will not partake of the happiness of renunciation,

detachment, peace and enlightenment”

(A. VII, 86).

– 380 –

vodàna: ‘cleansing’, may refer either to (1) morality

(sãla), or (2) concentration (samàdhi), or (3) wisdom

(pa¤¤à).

(1) “Cleansing of morality takes place in 2 ways: by

understanding the misery of moral deviation (sãlavipatti;

s. vipatti) and by understanding the blessing of

moral perfection (sãla-sampatti)” (s. Vis.M. I).

(2) Cleansing of concentration is concentration

connected with progress (visesa-bhàgiya-samàdhi;

s. hàna-bhàgiya). If, for example, one has entered the

1st absorption, and sensuous perceptions and reflections

arise, in that case there is concentration connected

with decline…. If, however, perceptions and reflections

free from thought-conception and discursive thinking

(2nd jhàna; q.v.) arise, in that case there is concentration

connected with progress.

(3) Cleansing, with reference to wisdom, is identical

with the ‘insight leading to the (path) ascent’

(vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà, q.v.), which arises at the

stage of ‘purification by knowledge and vision of the

path-progress’ (s. visuddhi VI), and is followed immediately

by the maturity moment and the entrance into the

supermundane paths.

vohàra-desanà: ‘conventional exposition’, as distinguished

from an explanation true in the highest sense

(paramattha-desanà, q.v.). It is also called sammutisacca

(in Sanskrit saüvrti). (App.).

void-deliverance; s. ceto-vimutti.

vokàra: s. pa¤ca-vokàra-bhava.

– 381 –

volition: cetanà (q.v.).

votthapana-citta: ‘determining consciousness’, is that

mind-element (functioning independently of karma;

s. Tab. I, 70). which in the process of sense-perception

performs the function of determining the sense-object.

It is one of the 14 functions of consciousness (vi¤¤àõakicca,

q.v.).

vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà: ‘insight leading to (path)

ascent’. It is also called ‘cleansing’ (vodàna, q.v.), and

according to Pts.M. II, 64, it is a name for 3 kinds of

insight-knowledge, namely: knowledge consisting in

the desire for deliverance (muccitu-kamyatà-¤àõa;

s. visuddhi VI, 6); reflecting-contemplation-knowledge

(pañisankhànupassanà-¤àõa; ib. VI, 7); and knowledge

consisting in equanimity regarding all formations

(sankhàrupekkhà-¤àõa; s. visuddhi VI, 8).

It arises at the stage of ‘purification by knowledge

and vision of the path-progress’ (s. visuddhi VI), and is

followed immediately by the maturity moment and the

entrance into the supermundane paths.

“ ‘Ascent’ (vuññhàna) is the supermundane path

(s. ariya-puggala) since it rises above the object forming

the external foundation (of insight; i.e. the external

5 groups of existence), in which object one’s mind was

absorbed, and also rises above one’s own continuity

(one’s own 5 groups of existence, or khandha, q.v.)

together with its defilements. By reason of its leading

upwards to the supermundane path, this insight is

called ‘ascending insight’. That it passes on to the path:

that is the meaning implied” (Vis.M. XXI, 83f.). (App.).

– 382 –

vyàpàda: ‘ill-will’, is a synonym of dosa (s. måla); it is

one of the 5 hindrances (nãvaraõa, q.v.) and one of the

10 fetters (saüyojana, q.v.).

– 383 –

W

water-element: àpo-dhàtu (s. dhàtu).

water-kasina, white-k., wind-k.: s. kasiõa.

weighty karma: garuka-kamma (s. karma).

wheel of existence: s. saüsàra, vañña.

wheel of the law: dhamma-cakka (q.v.).

will: cetanà (q.v.).

wind-element: vàyo-dhàtu (s. dhàtu).

wisdom: pa¤¤à (q.v.).

woeful courses (of existence): duggati (s. gati).

world, the 3-fold: loka (q.v.).

worldling: puthujjana (q.v.).

worldly: lokiya (q.v.).

worldly conditions, the 8: loka-dhamma (q.v.).

world-period, formation, dissolution: s. kappa.

wrongnesses, the 10: micchatta (q.v.).

wrong path: micchà-magga (q.v.).

wrong understanding (or view), w. thought,

w. speech; etc: s. micchà-magga.

– 384 –

Y

yakkha: in popular belief, a kind of ghost, goblin, or

ogre.

yàma-deva: are a kind of heavenly beings of the

sensuous world; s. deva.

yamaka-pàñihàriya: ‘twin miracle’. “There the Perfect

One performed the twin miracle unattainable to any

disciple: from the upper part of his body a flame sprang

forth, and from the lower part a stream of water. etc.’’

(Pts.M. I, 125 f.); App.

yathà-bhåta-¤àõa-dassana: ‘the knowledge and

vision according to reality’, is one of the 18 chief kinds

of insight (vipassanà, q.v.).

yathàkammåpaga-¤àõa: ‘knowledge of rebirth

according to one’s actions’; s. abhi¤¤à (4).

yathàsanthatik’anga: ‘the practice of being satisfied

with whatever dwelling’, is one of the ascetical means

of purification; s. dhutanga (12).

yoga: ‘yokes, bonds’, is another name for the 4 cankers

(àsava, q.v.).

yogàvacara = yogi: ‘one devoted to mental training,’

is in Vis.M. the usual name for the disciple cultivating

mental concentration (App.).

yokes: yoga, q.v.

– 385 –

yoni: ‘modes of generation.’ There are 4 generation

from the egg, from the mother’s womb, from moisture,

and spontaneous rebirth (opapàtika, q.v.) in heaven,

hell, etc. Explained in M. 12.

yoniso manasikàra: ‘thorough attention’ or wise

consideration’: s. manasikàra.

youth-infatuation: s. mada.

yuganaddha: s. samatha-vipassanà, last paragraph.

– 386 –

Appendix

Attempt at a chronological fixing of terms not found, or

not found in this form or meaning, in the oldest parts of

the Sutta Piñaka.

akusala-sàdhàraõa-cetasika: This term is probably

used for the first time in Abh. S., though already in

Vis.M. XIV the 4 cetasika in question are mentioned

amongst the mental factors associated with each of the

12 akusala-cittas (Tab. I, 22-33), while in the Abhidhamma

Piñaka (Dhs. §§ 365-429) uddhacca is found

only in the last of the 12 cittas, missing in all the

remaining 11 cittas.

ànantarika-kamma: This term seems to be used for

the first time in Kath. (190) of the Abh. Canon; the

5 crimes mentioned, however, are already enumerated

and explained in the old Sutta texts (e.g. A.V, 129), as

is to be seen from the main part of this work.

àrammaõa: s. paccaya, 2.

avacara: kàmàvacara is already met with in the oldest

sutta texts (e.g. D. 1). Råpàvacara and aråpàvacara,

however, occur probably for the first time in

Pts.M. (I. 83ff.), while in the Abhidhamma Canon and

the Com. all the 3 terms are frequently mentioned and

explained.

àvajjana: s. citta-vãthi.

– 387 –

avyàkata: This term in the sense of ‘amoral’ or ‘karmically

neutral’, does not occur in the old sutta texts, while

it is found in Pts.M. (e.g. I, 79ff). It plays an important

role in the Abh. Canon (e.g. Dhs.) and the philosophical

commentaries.

àyåhana: probably met with for the first time in

Pts.M. (I. 10f.).

bhava: The 2-fold division, kamma and upapatti, is

probably found for the first time in Vibh. of the

Abh. Canon, but it expresses throughout the genuine

teaching of the suttas.

bhàva: as an isolated word, signifying the physical

nature or faculties of sex, probably occurs only in the

Com. The expression itthibhàva and purisabhàva, with

the meaning of ‘being a man’, or ‘being a woman’, or

after ¤atvà, etc., as for instance tassà itthibhàvaü ¤atvà:

‘knowing her to be a woman’: such expressions are

often found in the oldest sutta texts.

bhavanga-sotà, -citta: These 2 compound terms

belong exclusively to the exegetical literature, while

the term bhavanga is several times, briefly and

unexplained, mentioned in the Paññh. of the

Abh. Canon, as though already known at that time.

carita: ràga-c., dosa-c., buddhi-c., etc., are only to be

met with in the Com. and Vis.M.

càritta- and vàritta-sila: are only found in the Com., as

Vis.M. 1, etc., but the teaching indicated by it is frequently

mentioned in the old sutta texts as karaõãya

and akaraõãya (e.g. A. II, 16).

– 388 –

cetasika: This term occurs often in the old sutta texts,

but only as adj. (e.g. cetasikaü sukhaü, etc.) or, at

times, used as a sing. neut. noun (e.g. D. 1;

p. 213, PTS). As a designation for mental factors, or

concomitants of consciousness (citta-sampayuttà

dhammà), it is frequently met with in

Dhs. (§ 1189, 1512) as cetasika-dhamma, while in

Vis.M., Abh. S., etc., cetasika is used also as a neuter

noun, in the sense of mental phenomenon.

citta-lahutà, –mudåta, –kamma¤¤atà, –pàgu¤¤atà,

–ujukatà: s. lahutà.

citta-vãthi, as well as all terms for the various functions

within the processes of consciousness, such as àvajjanacitta,

sampañicchana, santãraõa, votthapana, javana,

tadàrammaõa, bhavanga, cuti: none of these terms is

found in the Sutta Canon. except javana, in Pts.M. Even

in the Abh. Canon (e.g. Paññh.) only javana and

bhavanga are twice or thrice briefly mentioned. The

stages, however, must have been more or less known.

Cf. e.g. Paññh.: ‘‘Cakkhu-vi¤¤àõaü taü sampayuttakà ca

dhammà (= cetasikà) mano-dhàtuyà (performing the

sampañicchana-function), taü sampayuttakàna¤ ca

dhammànaü (cetasikànaü) anantara-paccayena

paccayo. Mano-dhàtu… manovi¤¤àõa-dhàtuya

(performing the santãraõa and votthapana function)….

Purimà purimà kusalà dhammà (javanà) pacchimànaü

pacchimànaü kusalànaü dhammànaü

(javanacittànaü) anantara-paccayena paccayo…

avyàkatànaü dhammànaü (tadàrammaõa- and

bhavanga-cittànaü….).”

– 389 –

cuti-citta: s. citta-vãthi.

dhàtu-vavatthàna: This term is first used in Pts.M.

while the subject in question is often treated in the old

sutta texts (e.g. M. 28, 62, 140, etc.). Cf. sammasana.

dhutanga: This compound term is used only in the

Com. The only place in the suttas where the first part,

dhuta, is used in the above sense, is found in S. XIV.

The names of the performers of these 13 ascetical

exercises, however, are all mentioned in the suttas, but

scattered here and there, for instance: paüsukålika,

àra¤¤ika, piõóapàtika, ekàsanika, tecãvarika,

sapàdànacàrã, sosànika, abhhokàsika, nesajjika,

yathàsanthatika, in M. 5, 113; A. V, 181-190, etc.;

rukkhamålika, khalupacchàbhattika and pattapiõóika in

A. V, 189 f. etc.

gotrabhå: s. javana.

hasituppàda-citta: This term is used in Abh. S. for the

citta, Tab. I, 72. This type of consciousness (the

Buddha’s smile) is often implied in the suttas.

iddhi: Most, or perhaps all, of the 10 terms listed at

Vis.M. XII, as adhiññhàna, etc., are absent in the older

sutta texts. In Pts.M. (II, 205-214), however, they are

enumerated in due order and minutely explained. The

magical powers indicated by these terms are, nevertheless,

for the most part explicitly described already in

the oldest sutta texts. Cf. D. 34; M. 3; A. III, 99, etc.

indriya-samatta: This term is probably found for the

first time in the Com., esp. Vis.M. IV. The rudiments of

– 390 –

this doctrine, however, are already found in the old

sutta texts, e.g. A. III, 100.

javana: The only reference in the Sutta Piñaka is

Pts.M. II, 73: kusalakammassa javana-khaõe, “in the

impulsion-moment of a wholesome karma.” In the

Abhidhamma Piñaka it is briefly mentioned in the

Paññhàna, but without explanation, as if already known.

The teaching of the flashing forth of 4 javana

immediately before entering the jhàna or lokuttaramagga,

i.e. parikamma, upacàra, anuloma, gotrabhå is,

as such, without doubt a later development in the

commentarial literature.

kalàpa: This doctrinal term, as well as the doctrine of

the different corporeal units or groups, such as the

suddhaññhaka-k., jãvitanavaka-k., cakkhudasaka-k., etc.

(s. Vis.M. XVIII), belong only to the later developments

of exegetical literature, as Vis.M. etc.

kàma: Vatthu-k. and kilesa-k. are probably found for

the first time in M.Nid. 1. They correspond to the pa¤ca

kàmaguõà (cakkhu-vi¤¤eyyà råpà, etc.) and kàma-ràga

in the older sutta texts (e.g. A. VI, 68).

kamma: ahosi-, janaka-, garuka-, bahula-,

upatthambhaka-, upaghàtaka-, upapãëaka-,

maraõàsanna-, upacchedaka-k. None of these terms is

found in the Sutta or Abh. Canon. They have been

introduced by the commentators (e.g. in Abh. S. and

Vis.M.) for the purpose of a systematical grouping of

the various aspects and functions of karma. The term

kañattà, however, occurs repeatedly in the Abh. Canon

in such expressions as: ‘Yasmiü samaye… kusalassa

– 391 –

kammassa kañattà… cakkhuvi¤¤àõaü hoti….’

(Dhs. § 431); or: ‘Yaü atthi råpaü kammassa

kañattà….’ (Dhs. § 653); or ‘katattà ca råpànaü’

(Paññh.), etc.

kamma¤¤atà: s. lahutà.

kammaññhànà: This term, as a designation for the

meditation exercises (bhàvanà), is found only in the

Com. In the suttas the word is only used in a concrete

sense for ‘field of activity or occupation’, as agriculture,

trade, etc.

kañattà-kamma: s. kamma.

kàya-lahutà: –mudutà, –kamma¤¤atà, –pàgu¤¤atà,

–ujukatà, s. lahutà.

khaõa: The 3 phases in a moment of consciousness,

i.e. uppàda, ñhiti, bhanga, are probably mentioned for

the first time in the commentaries; but there is a close

parallel in two sutta texts which may have been the

source for that teaching of a three-phased moment of

consciousness:

“There are 3 characteristics of what is conditioned

(sankhatassa lakkhaõà): an arising (uppàdo) is

apparent, a passing away (vayo) is apparent, a change

in the existing (ñhitassa a¤¤athattaü: Com. = ageing) is

apparent” (A. III, 47). The same 3 phases are

mentioned in S. XXII, 37, where they are applied to

each of the 5 khandha.

kilesa: the 10 kilesa are probably for the first time

enumerated and explained in Dhs. (§§ 1229-1239).

There they are, however, called kilesa-vatthu, which

– 392 –

name (dasa kilesa-vatthu) is already mentioned in

Pts. I, 130, though there they are neither enumerated

nor explained.

kiriya: (kiriyà, kriyà) citta is a term first used in the

Abh. Canon (e.g. Dhs. §§ 566-582). It has an important

place in post-canonical Abh. literature, e.g. Vis.M. XIV.

lahutà, mudutà, kamma¤¤atà: as råpassa-, kàya-, or

citta-, are for the first time found in the Abh. Canon,

esp. Dhs. All, however, perhaps with the sole exception

of pagu¤¤atà, are implied in the Sutta Canon, e.g. ‘citte

mudu-bhåte kammanãye’ (M. 4); ‘lahu-sa¤¤a¤ ca kàye

okkamitvà’ (S. LI. 22); ‘cittaü ujukaü akaüsu’ (S. I. 26;

PTS). Kàya-passaddhi and citta-passaddhi, however, are

well known in the old sutta texts in this connection.

manodvàràvajjana: s. citta-vãthi.

mudutà: s. lahutà.

¤àõa: Of the 9 kinds of insight-knowledge constituting

the pañipadà-¤àõadassana-visuddhi (s. Vis.M. XXI), the

following 6 are, as such, enumerated and explained for

the first time in Pts.M., namely: udayabbayànupassanà-

¤àõa (I. 54-57), bhangànupassanà-¤àõa, (ib. 57f.),

bhayatupaññhàna-¤àõa (ib. 59f), muccitukamyatà-¤àõa,

pañisankà-¤àõa, sankhàrupekkhà-¤àõa (ib. 60-65). The

terms udayabbaya and bhanga, in connection with the

5 groups of existence, however, are often met with in

the old sutta texts. Of the remaining 3 kinds of

knowledge, àdãnavànupassanà, nibbidànupassanà and

anuloma¤àõa, the first 2 occur often in the old sutta

texts, while anuloma-¤àõa, though only briefly

– 393 –

mentioned in the Abh. Canon (Paññh.), plays a

prominent part in the exegetical literature.

natthi-paccaya: s. paccaya.

n’eva-sekha-n’àsekha: While the terms sekha and

asekha occur frequently in the old sutta texts

(e.g. A. II, 4: ‘sekho ca asekho ca imasmiü loke…

àhuneyyà’ etc.), the term n’eva-sekha-n’àsekha is

perhaps mentioned for the first time in Pug. of the

Abh. Canon.

nibbàna: The 2 terms kilesa- and khandha–parinibbàna

(or nibbàna) are found only in the Com.; their

corresponding 2 aspects sa-upàdisesa and anupàdisesanibbàna,

however, are mentioned and explained in

It. 44 of the Sutta Canon.

nimitta: As signifying the mental reflex-image

occurring in meditation, this term, singly or in

compounds (parikkamma-, uggaha-, pañibhàga-n.), is

found only in the Com., Vis.M., etc. The same holds

good for kamma-nimitta, gati-nimitta.

nissaraõa-pahàna: s. pahàna.

nissaya, nissita: These two terms, in combination with

taõhà and diññhi, belong probably, as such, to the

commentarial literature, e.g. Vis.M. I.

niyàma: The compound words utu-, bãja-, kamma-,

citta-, and dhamma-niyàma, probably occur for the first

time in the Com. Niyàmatà, however, occurs often in

the old sutta texts, e.g. ‘thità va sà dhàtu

dhammaññhitatà dhammaniyàmata…’ (A. III. 134. etc.)

– 394 –

niyata-micchàdiññhi: is apparently mentioned for the

first time in Dhs. (e.g. § 1028) of the Abh. As a name for

the 10th and last of the akusala-kammapathas, it plays a

prominent role in the Com.

paccaya: This term occurs often in the old sutta texts in

such expressions as: ‘ko hetu, ko paccayo’, ‘yaü yad eva

paccayaü pañicca uppajjati vi¤¤àõaü’, etc., or as

abl. adverb in ‘avijjàpaccayà sankhàrà’. All the

24 paccaya are for the first time enumerated, explained

and applied to the phenomena of existence in the Abh.

Canon (Paññh.). Of these 24 paccaya, 5 are already

mentioned in Pts.M. (II, 49-54, 59f., 72-77), namely,

sahajàta-, a¤¤ama¤¤a-, nissaya-, sampayutta-,

vippayutta-paccaya.

1. Hetu is already used in the sutta texts as ‘condition’

in a general and indefinite way, as a synonym of

paccaya. In the sense of kusala and akusala roots (måla;

s. M. 9), however, it is only found in the Abh. Canon

and Com.

2. ârammaõa has in the ‘sutta texts only the

meaning of ‘foundation’, or ‘basis’, or ‘dependent on’,

e.g. M. 21: ‘tadàrammaõa¤ca sabbalokaü

mettàsahagatena cetasà pharitvà….’ or D.33; S.XXII.53:

‘vi¤¤àõaü… råpàrammaõaü… vedanàram-maõaü….’

As term for the 6 objects, råpàrammaõa,

saddàrammaõa, etc., it is first used in the Abh. Canon,

though the teaching of dependency of the 6 kinds of

vi¤¤àõa on the 6 sense-objects is an integral part of the

suttas. Cf. e.g. M.38: ‘cakkhu¤ca pañicca råpe ca uppajjati

vi¤¤àõaü sota¤ca pañicca sadde ca…’ etc.

– 395 –

3. Adhipati, as a philosophical term, occurs for the

first time in the Abh. Canon (esp. Paññh.). The

4 adhipati are in the suttas called iddhipàda

(e.g. S. LI. 11). In the old sutta texts, 3 adhipateyya are

however mentioned: atta-, loka-, dhamma- (A. III, 38).

4. & 5. Anantara- and samanantara-paccaya occur,

as paccaya, for the first time in the Abh. Canon

(esp. Paññh.). In a veiled form, however, we find the

first term in the old sutta texts (e.g. Ratana Sutta in

Khp. And Sn.): ‘samàdhim ànantarika¤¤amàhu’: the

concentration (associated with the arahatta-magga),

which is called the ‘immediate’ condition (for arahattaphala).

6. & 7. Sahajàta and a¤¤ama¤¤a-paccaya. Though

these terms, as such, are not found in the older sutta

texts, still the teaching of the conascent and mutual

conditionedness of the 4 mental groups (vedanà, sa¤¤à,

sankhàra, vi¤¤àõa) is taught in the old texts,

e.g. M. 28, 43; S. XXII, etc.

8. Nissaya-paccaya is mentioned in Pts; s. first

paragraph of this article, above.

9. Upanissaya-paccaya. Though this name is not

found in the suttas, the teaching expressed thereby is,

however, frequently met with there, sometimes even in

the form of upanisà (apparently a contraction of

upanissaya), e.g. S. XII, 23: ‘Yam pi’ssa taü bhikkhave

khayasmiü khaye ¤àõaü, taü sa-upanisaü vadàmi, no

anupanisaü’. The terms pakati-, àrammaõa- and

anantara-upanissaya are later developments of the

Abh. Com.

– 396 –

All the remaining terms are met with only in the

Abh. literature though the substance is, perhaps in all

cases, already dealt with in the old sutta texts.

pàdaka-jjhàna: This term is not found in the Sutta

Canon, nor apparently in the Abh. Canon, but very

often used in the exegetical literature. The idea, however,

expressed thereby, is implied in many places of

the old sutta texts, e.g., A. IX, 36, where it is shown how

the jhànas, one after the other, may serve as basis, or

foundation (as mental object), for vipassanà. In many

of the old sutta texts it is also shown how the 4th jhàna

forms the foundation for the attainment of the 5 higher

spiritual powers (abhi¤¤à).

pàgu¤¤atà: s. lahutà.

pahàna: The 5 terms, as vikkhambhana, etc., are, as

such, not found in the old sutta texts, but they are

enumerated and explained already in Pts.M. (II. 179f.).

palibodha: This 10-fold group is perhaps for the first

time mentioned in Khp. Com. and explained in

Vis.M. III.

pa¤ca-dvàràvajjana: s. àvajjana.

paramattha s. vohàra-desanà.

pàramã, pàramità: Only the Com. deals with this

subject, apart from the 3 apocryphal works, Buddhavaüsa

and Cariyapiñaka, and the Jàtaka.

paricchinnàkàsa: This term is used in the Com. for the

term àkàsa-kasiõa used in the older sutta texts.

– 397 –

pari¤¤à: ¤àta-, tãraõa-, pahàna–p., belong to the

exegetical literature, but they are already implied in

Pts.M. I. 87: ‘Abhi¤¤à-pa¤¤à ¤àtatthe ¤àõam, pari¤¤àpa¤¤

à tãraõatthe ¤àõam, pahàna-pa¤¤à pariccàgatthe

¤àõam… ye ye dhammà abhi¤¤àtà honti, te te dhammà

¤àta honti… tãrità… pahãnà.’

pariyatti, pañipatti, pañivedha: The first of these

3 fundamental terms, especially in this 3-fold grouping,

belongs to the commentarial literature, though the idea

expressed thereby is often found in the suttas in such

expressions as: ‘dhammaü pariyàpuõàti suttaü geyyaü

veyyàkaraõaü….’ The 2 other terms are found

separately in the suttas.

pañipannaka: occurs in Pug. 17.

pañipatti: s. pariyatti.

pañisandhi: is chiefly a commentarial term; but it

occurs several times in one of the later books of the

Sutta Piñaka, the Pañisambhidà Magga (Pts.M. I, 11f, 52,

59f.; II, 72f.). The usual sutta term for ‘rebirth’ is

punabbhava.

pañisandhika: ahetu-, dvihetu-, and tihetu-p.: are

purely commentarial terms. For pañisandhi-citta, s. cittavãthi.

pañivedha: s. pariyatti.

pattidàna: This term is found only in the Com., but the

belief expressed by it is several times mentioned in the

older sutta texts. Cf. the main part of this work.

– 398 –

råpa: the terms nipphanna-råpa and råpa-råpa are

used only in the Com., although sappañigha and pasàda

are already found in the Abh. Canon (e.g. Dhs. §§ 585,

597f.), while upàdiõõa occurs repeatedly in the old

sutta texts, e.g. M. 28, apparently with the meaning

given in the main part of this work. Cf. further upàdàråpa.

samàdhi: parikamma-, upacàra-, and appanà-s.: are

found only in the Com.

sama-sãsã: This term seems to be met with for the first

time in Pug. 19, while the person indicated is described

in A., as is to be seen in the main part of this work.

samatha-yànika: s. sukkha-vipassaka.

sammasana: This term, as noun, occurs probably for

the first time in Pts.M. I. 53, although as a verb it is

found already in the old texts. The same holds good

with its synonym vavatthàna.

sammuti: s. sacca.

sampañicchana-citta: s. citta-vãthi.

samuññhàna: kamma- (= kamma-ja), utu-, àhàra-s.:

these terms are found only in the Com. Cittasamuññhàna-

råpa, however, occurs already in

Dhs. (§ 586) of the Abh. Canon; and is indicated very

often in Paññh., e.g. ‘taü (cittaü) samuññhànàna¤ ca

råpànaü’. The teaching of the origin of matter is, of

course, already implied in the old sutta texts.

– 399 –

santàna, santati: The terms citta-, råpa-, khandha-,

bhavanga-s.:, etc., are found, here and there, in the

Abh. Canon (e.g. Dhs. § 634, Kath. 110; s. Guide V),

but they are often met with in the Abh. Com. In the

Sutta (Therag. 716) is found sankhàrasantati.

santãraõa-citta: s. citta-vãthi.

sãla: paccayasannissita-, paccàvekkhaõa-sãla:, etc., are

terms used in the Com. for the proper contemplation

(pañisankhà yoniso) of the 4 requisites of a monk, often

dealt with in the old texts (e.g. M. 2). Also the 3 other

pàrisuddhi-sãla, as pàtimokkhasaüvara-, indriya-, and

àjãvapàrisuddhi-sãla, though under these names perhaps

only known in the Com., are fully dealt with in the old

texts, e.g. M.53, D.2, M.2, etc. The terms paõõatti- and

pa¤¤atti-sãla are used only in the Com.

sukkha-vipassaka = suddha-vipassanà-yànika: these

terms are used only in the Com., as also their counterpart

samathayànika.

tadàrammaõa-citta: s. citta-vãthi.

tathatà: This term, with the meaning in question,

occurs perhaps only once in the Canon, namely in

Kath. (s. Guide 83). Whether it is found also somewhere

in the Com., I am unable to say.

tatramajjhattatà: occurs probably for the first time in

the Abh. Canon (e.g. Paññh.; cf. Guide 110).

theravàda: This term was already used by the Buddha

himself in speaking of the doctrine of âlàra-Kàlàma

– 400 –

(s. M. 26). As a name for the Buddha’s doctrine it

belongs to the commentarial literature.

ujukatà: s. lahutà.

upacaya: is an Abh. term but already alluded to in the

old sutta texts, e.g. M. 149: ‘àyatiü pa¤cåpàdànakkhandhà

upacayaü gacchanti’, or in D.2: ‘Ayaü kàyo…

odana-kummàs’ upacayo’.

upàdà-råpa: is, as such, an Abh. term, but it is used

with the same meaning in the sutta texts, e.g. in M. 9:

‘catunna¤ ca mahàbhåtànaü upàdàya råpaü’. Upàdà is

an abbreviation of upàdàya (gerund).

vàritta-sãla: s. càritta.

vasã: The 5 kinds of vasã are probably found first in the

Vis.M.

vatthu: as a general term for the 5 sense-organs

(cakkhu-vatthu, etc) is frequent in the Com., and often

used together with àrammaõa (object). This usage,

however, is already indicated in the Abh. Canon:

‘Cakkhum p’etaü… vatthum p’etaü’ (Dhs. § 597; Vibh.,

p.71, PTS): ‘cakkhuvi¤¤àõassa vatthu’ (Dhs. §§ 679ff.).

vimokkha: The 3, i.e. su¤¤atà-, animitta-, appaõihita-:

are for the first time described and enumerated in

Pts.M. II, 351. As su¤¤atàsamàdhi, etc., however, they

are already given at D. 33.

vi¤¤atti: kàya- and vacã-v., seem to occur for the first

time in Dhs. (§§ 665,718) of the Abh. Canon.

– 401 –

vipassanà: is frequently found in the older sutta texts

(e.g. A. II, 32; S. XLV, 159), also together with samatha.

The 9 and 18 insight-knowledges (vipassanà-¤àõa and

mahà-vipassanà), however, occur in the Sutta Piñaka

only in the Pts.M., ¥ànakathà, where they are enumerated

and explained, though without any group name

being attached to them.

vipassanåpakkilesa: The group of 10 is mentioned for

the first time in Pts.M. II, 102, and it is said that the

mind may become defiled thereby (kilissati), but the

above term is not used for the 10. This is probably

done for the first time in Vis.M. XX.

vivañña: as a name for Nibbàna, seems to be found only

in the Com.

vivaññanànupassanà: is already mentioned in Pts.M.,

together with the remaining 17 kinds of vipassanà.

In the old texts it is not found.

vohàra-sacca: etc. The terms paramattha-, vohàra-,

sammuti-: etc., belong as such to the commentarial

literature, but their significance is clearly shown in the

old sutta texts, e.g. D. 9: ‘loka-sàma¤¤à, loka-vohàra’;

further(D. 33): ‘sammuti-¤àõa’, etc.

vokàra: pa¤ca-, catu-, and eka-v. (bhava), occur as

technical terms only in the Abh. (Vibh., Yam., Paññh.)

and Com., e.g. Vis.M., but their substance is an integral

part of the suttas.

votthapana-citta: s. citta-vãthi.

– 402 –

vuññhàna-gàminã-vipassanà: is probably implied in

Pts.M. I, 60, under the name of vuññhàna-vivaññane

¤àõa.

yamaka-pàñihàriya: is perhaps for the first time mentioned

and described in Pts.M., as seen in the main part

of this work.

yogàvacara, yogi: These 2 terms belong to the commentarial

literature, but the first term appears also

in Mil.

V enerable N yanatiloka